1. What environmental factor is between the expansion of growth and the great clay?
1. Salinity of the water
2. Lack of light
3. Atmospheric grip
4. Lack of mineral resources
Explanation: in all kingdoms, there are more minors attached to extreme minds of the middle of the body, but for the skin group, it is the main factor, without which it is impossible to live. For roslin, such a factor is sleepy light (roslins of roslin are phototrophies and without light they cannot induce organic speech for their own life). The correct answer is 2.
2. The moisture content of the medium, necessary for the life of organisms, - ce chinnik
1. Biological
2. Abiotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Non-periodic
Explanation: the moisture content of the medium is brought to the factors of the inanimate medium, so the factors are called abiotic. The correct answer is 2.
3. What is the intermediate factor for roslins in the steppe zone?
1. Nestacha vologists
2. High temperature
3. Lack of mineral resources
4. Promotion of ultraviolet enhancement
Explanation: in the steppe zone, the water content is already low and the water level is even higher, so the growth of the steppe zone may be lacking in water. The correct answer is 1.
4. Which of the suggested applications illustrates the competitiveness between organisms?
1. Bilka - woodpecker
2. Oak - white mushroom
3. Cow - scourge tsip'yak
4. Vzhe - toad
5. What type of trees do pine and boletus enter?
1. Symbiosis
3. Hizhak - a victim
4. Competition
Explanation: between the roots of trees and the hyphae of fungi in forests vinikaє symbiosis. Interactions between mushrooms and trees are called mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza is a symbiosis between the hyphae of the fungus and the root of the tree, during which the tree takes away the mineral speech, which occurs during the decomposition of organic matter in the process of exchange of the fungus speeches, and the fungus prepares ready-made organic speech, which is absorbed in the process of photosynthesis in the growth. The correct answer is 1.
6. Which of the sighting butts illustrates the blue hut-victim?
1. Cancer-satellite - sea anemone
2. Jmil - stable
3. Tit - caterpillar
4. Woodpecker - squirrel
Explanation: Hermit crabs and sea anemones live near mutually moving waters, yak and dzhmil with stables. A tit is a caterpillar (this is how blues are called a hizhatstvo - a hizhak-victim), a squirrel and a woodpecker can make a similar diet of eating, to that there is a type of mutuality between them - interspecies competition. The correct answer is 3.
7. Serve as a butt of symbiosis as a special form of biotic vessels
1. Mycorrhiza of the roots of trees and hyphae of droplet mushrooms
2. Life of a tick on the coat of a dog
3. Placement of zozuley eggs at the nest of coma-like birds
4. Utvorennya fіni flat chrobak in tili bik
Explanation: symbiosis - in the presence of blue organisms, in some offending organisms there is only a plus. For example, lichens are a symbiosis of a fungus and algae, in such a way the circle is formed: hydration virobles organic speech, and the fungus is a heterotroph of its expansion to inorganic speeches. Another variant of the symbiosis is the interplay of the roots of the tree and the hyphae of the fungus, with which the tree supplies the fungus with organic speech, and the fungus splits them to inorganic ones, in this way the circle of speeches is created. The correct answer is 1.
8. What is the name of the dog and the herding mite?
1. Symbiosis
2. Competition
3. Hizhatstvo
9. What kind of spray will cool the growths when the temperature rises again?
1. Changing the speed of exchange of speeches
2. Increasing the intensity of photosynthesis
3. Change in the intensity of breathing
4. Stronger viparovuvannya vodi
Explanation: the main energy-producing process in the body is breath. A part of the energy that has been released is spent in heat, which, in order to cool the body, needs to change the intensity of the breath. The correct answer is 3.
1. Abiotic
2. Biotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Intermediate
Explanation: vzzaєmodії organіzmіv, vpliv їх one on one - biotic factors, factors of living nature. The correct answer is 2.
11. What is the name of the type of vine between tinder fungus and birch, de vin alive?
1. Hizhatstvo
2. Symbiosis
3. Competition
12. Do you see any of these organisms as a butt of symbiosis?
1. Ticks and dogs
2. Pine that butter
3. Pike and carp
13. Anniversary of hoarding creatures in the winter period due to the method of saving the number of their populations to factors
1. Evolutionary
2. Anthropogenic
3. Physiological
4. Abiotic
Explanation: podgodovuvannya zdijsnyuєtsya lyudiny, and diya lyudiny is called an anthropogenic factor. The correct answer is 2.
14. Must see the activity of people to be brought to factors
1. Abiotic
2. Biotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Periodic
Explanation: biotic factors - factors of living nature, abiotic - non-living, anthropogenic - factors, connected with the activity of people. The correct answer is 3.
15. In most species of roslin and creatures, they are daily attached to anthropogenic factors due to the fact that they are
1. Steel appears
2. May have a vipadical character
3. To lie in the form of climatic minds
4. May rhythmic character
Explanation: more roslin and creatures stick with people even more rarely and so zustrіch may have a vipadkovy character. Attached to anthropogenic factors, only in domestic creatures, shards of stink were brought out especially for life in order from people. The correct answer is 2.
16. The high number of forks can be an intermediate factor
1. Zaytsiv-rusakiv
2. Soboliv
3. Vedmediev
4. Kunits
Explanation: high numbers will be an intermediate factor for organisms, which is even less for wolfs. Such are hare-hare. The correct answer is 1.
Task for independent vision
1. Serve as a signal to the autumn flight of birds in the middle smooth of Russia
1. Lowering the temperature again
3. The next frost
4. Short day of daylight
The correct answer is 4.
2. What factor is the basis of seasonal changes in the life of birds?
1. Increasing the number of khyzhakiv
2. Destruction of biotic connections
3. Temperature change
4. Changing the day of daylight
The correct answer is 4.
3. Do you see any of these organisms as a butt of competition?
1. Vovka and boar
2. Pike and perch
3. Bjoli ta koroida beetle
4. Sea anemones and shellfish
The correct answer is 2.
1. Lugіv that hurts
2. Smishanih and coniferous forests
3. Tropical wood forest
4. Tundry and empty
The correct answer is 4.
5. Mutual injection of organisms of one number of different species can be added to factors
1. Biotic
2. Intermediate
3. Anthropogenic
4. Abiotic
The correct answer is 1.
6. Serve as an ominous signal, which calls out the present leaf fall near the growths of the central smuga, to serve
1. Accumulation of shkidlivih speeches at the leaf
2. Increase in the number of falls
3. Short day of daylight
4. Change of life speeches in the ґrunti
The correct answer is 3.
7. Mineral speeches, like vicarious roslins in the process of ground eating, are brought to a group of factors
1. Seasonal
2. Anthropogenic
3. Biotic
4. Abiotic
The correct answer is 4.
8. Up to abiotic factors
1. Changing the temperature according to the season
2. Infusion of roslin on the life of creatures
3. Drainage of wetlands
4. Roslyn's competition for the claying of light
The correct answer is -1.
9. The main factor that causes leaf fall in roslin is change
1. Ground floor warehouse
2. Water
3. Trivality of a bright day
4.Temperatures
The correct answer is 3.
10. Mutual injections of organisms of the same number of different species one by one are brought to factors
1. Abiotic
2. Biotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Intermediate
The correct answer is 2.
11. Do you see any kind of organisms as a butt of symbiosis?
1. Ticks and dogs
2. Pine that butter
3. Pike and carp
4. Roslini Rosichki and Komakhi
The correct answer is 2.
12. Anniversary of hoarding creatures in the winter period with the method of saving the number of their populations is brought to factors
1. Evolutionary
2. Anthropogenic
3. Physiological
4. Abiotic
The correct answer is 2.
13. Must see the activity of people to be brought to factors
1. Abiotic
2. Biotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Periodic
The correct answer is 3.
14. What is the factor that separates the life of Roslyn on clay?
1. Life speeches
2. Warmth
3. Light
4. Kisen
The correct answer is 3.
15. Is there a lack of any environmental factor that causes the appearance of light green leaves in roslins?
1. Drive
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Light
4. Kisnyu
The correct answer is 3.
16. What is the nature of the mutual relations between organisms of different species that require the same food resources?
1. Hizhak - a victim
3. Competition
4. Mutual assistance
The correct answer is 3.
17. Zavdyaki indirect development among creatures eased competition between
1. Individuals of different species
2. Population of different species
3. Larvae and mature forms
4. Older mind
The correct answer is 3.
18. On the outskirts of a number of places, mass death of pines occurs through those in these regions
1. Climatic instability appears
2. The soil is low
3. Do not carry out the rejuvenation of trees with mineral resources
4. Povidrya that ground is heavily fermented with industrial inputs
The correct answer is 4.
19. Indicate an abiotic factor, necessary for the life of Roslyn.
1. The presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
2. Mineral additions made by a person
3. Availability in the ecosystem of consumers
4. Competition between pines for light
The correct answer is 1.
20. Mutual support of bean plants and bulbous bacteria
1. Mycorrhiza
2. Lodging
3. Symbiosis
4. Competition
The correct answer is 3.
21. What is the name of the type of vine between tinder fungus and birch, de vin alive?
2. Competition
3. Hizhatstvo
4. Symbiosis
The correct answer is 1.
22. The intensity of any environmental factor, the most favorable for life, is called
1. Maximum
2. Streaming
3. Optimal
4. Fence
The correct answer is 3.
23. What is the relationship between the biocoenosis of the steppe near the taman wild fowl creatures of different species?
1. Hizhatstvo
2. Competition
3. Symbiosis
4. Neutralism
The correct answer is 2.
24. An intermediary is a factor, for the presence of which in a population
1. Organisms function normally
2. The presence of individuals is moving
3. Vinicating environmental insulation
4. The reason becomes impossible
The correct answer is 4.
25. What is the factor between the life of roslin in the steppe zone?
1. High temperature
2. Nestacha vologists
3. Visibility to humus
4. Ultraviolet change
The correct answer is 2.
26. Up to abiotic factors
1. Root feeding by wild boars
2. Dawn snowfall
3. Roslinny litter
4. Nawala Sarani
The correct answer is 2.
27. Factories are called anthropogenic
1. Povyazanі z diyalnistyu people
2. Abiotic character
3. Mind by the historical changes of the earth's measles
4. Initial functioning of biogeocenoses
The correct answer is 1.
28. Prior to anthropogenic factors, which are responsible for the rapid increase in the number of perch populations near water,
1. Utvornya krizhany pokrivu on the surface of the water
2. Increasing the number of fry of other species of ribs
3. Flooded water basins with sewage waters
4. Reduced water temperature
The correct answer is 3.
29. Injecting people into the life of an ecosystem - the butt of a factor
1. Abiotic
2. Biotic
3. Fence
4. Anthropogenic
The correct answer is 4.
30. Ecological officials who characterize water blues in biogeocenoses between individuals of different populations are called
1. Fence
2. Biotic
3. Abiotic
4. Anthropogenic
The correct answer is 2.
31. What is the example of illustrative manifestation of the biotic factor in the natural medium?
1. Contaminated by water, rotting of the instructions from agrocenoses
2. The larvae of the apple sapling
3. Wintering of wheat seedlings during spring frosts
4. Decrease in the level of ground waters in case of dry weather
The correct answer is 2.
32. Zgіdno z vchennyam V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere, vapnyaks, kam'yane vugillya hid in the result
1. Occidation of the cosmic saw
2. Viability of living organisms
3. Volcanic activities
4. City lighting processes
The correct answer is 2.
33. What factor is such that is common for grain-eating birds in winter in Taizi?
1. Light intensity
2. Fall under atmospheric pressure
3. Vidsutnist comakh
4. Height of the snow curve
The correct answer is 4.
34. One-celled green algae enter into symbiosis in lichen
1. Bacteriophages
2. Bacteria-saprotrophy
3. The simplest
4. Mushrooms
The correct answer is 4.
35. Fluffing up the soil under the crown of fruit trees
1. Anthropogenic
2. Biotic
3. Fence
4. Limitation
The correct answer is 1.
36. Factors that are important to go beyond the vitality of organisms are called
1. Ecological
2. Abiotic
3. Anthropogenic
4. Intermediate
The correct answer is 4.
37. Near the critonic growths, which linger in the middle of the water, it is equal to the terrestrial
1. Good quality fabrics
2. Intensive photosynthesis
3. Weak root system
4. Stitching on the bottom side of the sheet
The correct answer is 3.
Our familiarity with ecology, perhaps, originates from one of the largest divisions and divisions of science – autecology. The respect of autecology concentrates on the interaction of individuals or groups of individuals with the minds of a common medium. Therefore, the key concept of autecology is the ecological factor, that is the factor of dovkill, which the organism injects.
Everyday nature conservation is impossible without growing the optimum of that number of factors for the whole biological species. It’s true, how to protect that other kind, if you don’t know, how to wash your life of guilt, to win. Navit "protection" of this kind, as a person is reasonable, knowing the sanitary and hygienic standards, yakі є no more, like the optimum of various environmental factors for a hundred people.
The injection of dovkіllya on the body is called an environmental factor. More precisely, the scientific mission is to sound like this:
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR - be it the mind's medium, on the yak alive react with pristosuvalnye reactions.
Ecological factor - tse whether it be some element of the middle, scho direct chi mediating infusion on living organisms, wanting to stretch one of the phases of development.
Due to their nature, environmental factors can be divided into three groups:
abiotic factori - injections of inanimate nature;
biotic factors - infusions of living nature.
anthropogenic factors - infuse, viklikanі sensible and unreasonable diyalnistyu people ("anthropos" - people).
People view living and non-living nature, and sorting out the sensory and geochemical role (for example, vilifying the walling up like a vugillya and oil rich in millions of rocks and letting them out with carbon dioxide gas). Therefore, anthropogenic factors in the scope and globality of their infusion are approaching geological forces.
It is not uncommon for environmental officials to give a detailed classification, if it is necessary to designate a specific group of factors. For example, razrіznyayut klіmatichnі (scho stosuyutsya climate), edafіchnі (ґruntovі) officials of the middle.
Like a textbook butt of the mediated infusion of environmental factors, to suggest the name of the bird bazaars, which are the majestic crowd of birds. The high prevalence of birds is explained by a number of causal and derivational links. Birds after drinking near the water, organic speeches near the water are mineralized by bacteria, the concentration of mineral speeches is increased to increase the number of algae, and after them - to zooplankton. The lower crustaceans, which enter to the zooplankton, are eating ribs, and the birds are eating ribs, which inhabit the bird market. The lancet flickers. The bird's last acts as an environmental factor, indirectly increasing the number of bird colonies.
How to establish the cause of such factors different from nature? Regardless of the impersonal factors, from the most significant environmental factor as an element of the middle, which flows into the body, next to sleep. Zocrema: the influx of environmental officials will always appear in the change of life of organisms, but it is possible - to cause the number of population to change. Tse allow me to break up the duty of various environmental officials.
Chi varto say that the injection of a factor into a person is determined not by the nature of the factor, but by its dose. In the light of what has been said above, that simple life proof becomes obvious that the effect determines the dose of the factor itself. Really, what is the "temperature" factor? This is enough abstraction, but from what it is said that the temperature is -40 degrees Celsius - there is no time for abstraction, it would be better to wrap up everything warmly! From the other side, +50 degrees, we will not get richer.
In this way, the factor is injected into the body with a sing dose, and the middle doses can be seen in the minimum, maximum and optimal doses, as well as the values for which life an individual is attributed (they are called lethal, or lethal).
The impact of different doses on the population as a whole can be described graphically:
On the y-axis, the number of fallow populations is shown in terms of doses of chi and others (all abscissa). We see the optimal dose of the factor and the dose of the difactor, for which the vitality of the given organism is taken into account. 5 zones are shown on the graph:
optimum zone
right-handed and left-handed in the minimum zone (in the zone between the optimum to max or min)
lethal zones (which are located outside the boundaries of max and min), in which the number of populations is high 0.
The range of the value of the factor, beyond the boundaries of which the normal life of individuals becomes unbearable, is called the boundaries of vitality.
In the coming age, we can see how the organisms of hundreds of different ecological officials are divided. In other words, the language of the coming age is about ecological groups of organisms, as well as about Libіha's house and about those, as everything is said to be assigned to the GDK.
Glossary
ABIOTIC FACTOR - mindfulness of the minds of the inorganic world; environmental factor of inanimate nature
CHINNIK ANTHROPOGENIC - ecological clerk, goiter for his activities.
PLANKTON - the collection of organisms that linger with the water and the newcomers to actively repair support for the transfer of currents, to "soar" near the water.
BAZAR BIRD - colonial settlements of birds, povyazanih z watery middle ground (guillemots, gulls).
On the basis of ecological factors of the future, we have been given the respect of the doslidnik? It is not uncommon to stand in front of the clergyman to reveal those environmental officials, who despise the life of the representatives of the population, and surround the growth of that development. For example, it is necessary to find out the reasons for the decrease in the birth rate and the reasons for the extinction of the natural population.
With all the varying environmental factors and folds, which are blamed for the evaluation of the sprouts (complex) inflows, it is important that the warehouses of the natural complex factors may have unequal significance. Back in the 19th century, Liebig (Liebig, 1840), having poured various microelements into the growth of growth, having established: the growth of growth is surrounded by an element, the concentration of which lies at the minimum. A chinnik, who is trying to change with a non-stach, but the names are limiting. Figuratively, the camp helps to reveal the so-called "Barrel of Liebіha".
Barrel of Liebikh
Show yourself a barrel, near the wooden slats on the sides of different heights, like a little one is shown. It was clear that the height of the slats would be higher, but if you pour water into the barrel, you can evenly stilki, like a dozhina of the shortest slats (in this case - 4 dies).
There is no longer any "understanding" of the terminology: the height of the poured water will not be a biological or ecological function (for example, vrozhanistyu), and the height of the slats will be indicative of a step in the dose of that other factor to the optimum.
Ninі the law of the minimum of Liebіch is interpreted more broadly. The limiting factor may be a factor that is not only in the wrong, but also too much.
The environmental factor plays the role of the LIMITING FACTOR, as this factor is lower than the critical level, or exceeds the maximum wine level.
The limiting factor is the cumulative area of a wider mind, or (for less suvorih minds) is indicated on the global level of the exchange of speeches. For example, instead of phosphates in sea water, it is a limiting factor that determines the development of plankton and the productivity of the group.
The concept of "limiting factor" is limited not only to various elements, but also to all environmental factors. It is not uncommon for a limiting factor to be competitive in blue.
In the skin organism, there are different ecological chinniki to establish mezhі vitrivalnosti. Fallow in addition, there are wide chi vuzki tsі mezhі, razrіznyayut eurіbiontnі and stenobіontnі organisms. Evribionty zdatnі vinosity wide amplitude of the intensity of various environmental factors. Let's say that the habitat of the fox is from the forest tundra to the steppes. Stenobionti, navpaki, to endure the arcane intensity of the environmental clerk. For example, practically all growths in tropical forests are stenobionty.
It is not uncommon to say what kind of factor may be on the verge. So, we can talk about eurytherms (tolerate high temperature fluctuations) of organisms (rich coma) and stenotherms (for growing tropical forests, fluctuations in temperature between +5 ... +8 degrees C can be deadly); Hebrew / stenohaline (tolerate / unbearable water salinity); evrі / stenobatnyh (who live near the wide / narrow boundaries of the deep waters) is too thin.
Vindication in the process of biological evolution of stenobiont species can be a form of specialization, if greater efficiency is achieved at the expense of adaptability.
Interaction of factors. GDK.
For independent environmental factors, to inform the understanding of the "limiting factor" to determine the impact of a complex of environmental factors on the whole organism. However, in real minds, environmental officials can help to relax the cause of one alone. For example, the frost in the Kirov region is easier to bear, while in St. Petersburg, shards in the rest of the river are wet.
The shape of the interdependence of environmental officials is an important scientific problem. You can see three main types of mutual factors:
additive - the interplay of factors - a simple algebraic sum of the effects of the skin factor in the case of an independent factor;
synergistic - cumulative effect of the factor in the substantia effect (so the effect in case of splenic factor is greater than the simple sum of the effects of the skin factor in case of independent factor);
antagonistic - spilna diya factor simplifies the effect (so the effect with їх splіy dії mensha for a simple amount of skin factor effects).
Why is it so important to know about the interaction of environmental factors? The basis of the theoretical calculation of the value of the maximum permissible concentrations (GDK) of contaminating agents and the marginally admissible concentrations (MPC) of contaminating agents (for example, noise, radiation) is the law of the limiting factor. GDK is established experimentally only on equal terms, in which the organism still has pathological changes. At the same time, it has its own difficulties (for example, it is most common to be extrapolated to the people of the tribute, taken from the creatures). Prote at once is not about them.
It is not uncommon to happen a little, as nature conservation organizations radioly report that the rive of the most zabrudnyuvachiv in the atmosphere of the place is located in the boundaries of the GDK. And the authorities of the sanitary and epidemiological authorities at once note the rise of respiratory infections in children. The explanation can be like this. It's no secret that a lot of atmospheric contaminants can have a similar effect: the mucus membranes of the upper respiratory passages are treated, respiratory infections are provoked, etc. І spіlna diya tsikh zabrudnyuvachіv gives additive (or synergistic) effect.
Therefore, ideally, with the development of the norms of the GDK and the assessment of the actual environmental situation, the mutual factors can be protected. It's a pity, but in practice it's even more foldable: it's important to plan such an experiment, it's important to evaluate mutually, plus the strength of the GDK may have negative economic effects.
Glossary
Microelements - Chemical elements that are necessary for organisms in worthless quantities, but they signify the success of their development. M. yak mikrodobriv vicory to increase the yield of roslin.
LIMITING FACTOR - a factor that sets a framework (original) for the overrun of any process or the basis of an organism (kind, spivtovaristva).
AREAL - an area of expansion, be it a systematic group of organisms (species, genus, family) of a large type of organisms (for example, the range of lichen pines).
EXCHANGE OF SPEECH - (to the body) the aftermath, transformation, victory, accumulation and waste of speech and energy in living organisms. Life is more likely to change speeches.
EURIBIONT - an organism that lives in different minds of the middle
STENOBIONT - an organism that requires strictly singing minds.
XENOBIOTIK - foreign to the body chemical speech, which naturally does not enter the biotic circulation. As a rule, a xenobiotic is an anthropogenic adventure.
ecosystem
MISKI THAT PROMISLOVI ECOSYSTEMS
The critical characteristic of Russian ecosystems.
Miska ecosystems are heterotrophic, part of sleepy energy, fixed by miskoe dews or sony batteries, planted on dahas of boudins, is insignificant. The main source of energy for the enterprises of the city, the scorching and lighting of the apartments of the townspeople are spread outside the borders. Tse are the birthplaces of oil, gas, vougill, hydrota of nuclear power plants.
The place saves the majestic number of waters, it’s only an insignificant part of what a vicarist’s person is without a middle life. The main part of the water is spent on the brewing process and on the buttov consumption. Special care should be taken at the localities to increase the amount of 150 to 500 liters per haul, and due to the improvement of craftsmanship, one hulk is reduced to 1000 l per haul. Vikoristan, in places, the water turns near nature near the zabrudenny camp - it is full of important metals, surpluses of petroleum products, foldable organic speeches, close to phenol, thin. They may have pathogenic micro-organisms. The place emits into the atmosphere fumes, pills, concentrating on the tombs of toxic substances, as if with streams of spring water, they are consumed by the water ecosystem. Roslini, near the warehouses of the city's ecosystems grow in parks, gardens, on lawns, their main recognition is the regulation of the gas warehouse of the atmosphere. The stench sees the sour, tarnishes the carbon dioxide and purifies the atmosphere with heavy gases and a saw, like it has an hour of work for industrial enterprises and transport. Roslini can also have a great aesthetic and decorative value.
Creatures near the city are not only represented by species that are not only the most prominent in natural ecosystems (birds live near the parks: hornwort, nightingale, wagtail; savts: waterings, squirrels and representatives of other groups of creatures), but a special group of Russian creatures - companions of humans. At її skladі - birds (gorobtsі, shpaks, pigeons), grizzlies (shur and mice), and komakhi (targani, bugs, moths). A lot of creatures, tied up with people, are eating offal on smitniks (jackdaws, gorobtsі). Tse sanitary facilities. The spreading of organic outputs is carried out by the larvae of flies and other creatures and micro-organisms.
The main peculiarity of the ecosystems of modern places is in the fact that they have broken ecological jealousy. All the processes of regulating the flow of speech and the energy of people must be brought to the fore. People are guilty of regulating how to save energy and resources - sires for industry and for people, as well as the amount of dust that enters the atmosphere, water and soil as a result of industry and transport. Nareshti, vin vyznaє and rozmіri tsikh ecosystems, yakі in rozvinenikh kraїnah, and the rest of the rocks and in Russia, shvidko rozpozayutsya for rahunok zamіskogo cottage life. Low-surface areas forget to change the area of forests and rural subdarskoe lands, their "rozpozvannya" vimagaє life of new highways, which changes part of ecosystems, buildings viroblyat products of food and drink around I'm sour.
Promise zabrudnennya middle.
In my ecosystems, the most safe for nature is the craft of zabrudnennya.
Chemical pollution of the atmosphere. This factor is the most unsafe for the life of a person. The most wide zabrudnyuvachs
Syrchisty gas, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, and so on Ecologists have close to 2000 pollutants of the atmosphere.
Golovni dzherel zabrudnennya - TES. The atmosphere is also strongly polluted by boiler houses, oil refineries and motor vehicles.
Chemically polluted with water. Enterprises to throw off oil products near the water reservoir, with the help of nitrogen, phenol, rich in other inputs of industry. When naphtha is bottled with water, saline species become fermented, naphtha and petroleum products are also bottled at the same time of transportation. In Russia, the lakes of Pivnochi of Western Siberia suffer the most from naphtha pollution. The rest of the rocks grew the problem of water ecosystems of butovy runoff in the city sewerage. In these effluents, the concentration of miyuchy zabіv increased, as microorganism is important to lay out.
As long as the number of zabrudnyuvachiv, which are thrown into the atmosphere or thrown into the rivers, is small, the ecosystems themselves can cope with them. When the water becomes muddy, the water near the river becomes practically clean after 3-10 km from the river muddy. It’s too confusing, the ecosystems are impossible to get in with them and irrevocable traces begin.
Water becomes unsuitable for drinking and unsafe for people. Chi is not suitable for muddy water and for rich galuzy of industry.
Clogging the surface of the soil with solid wastes. The city's halls of trade and butt-butt smittya occupy large areas. At the warehouse, there can be rubbish speech, so, like mercury, or other important metals, chemical slugs, like rozchinyayutsya in woody and snowy waters and then consumed by the waters and gruntovі water. You can use the smіtta that accessory to avenge the radioactive speech.
The surface of the soil can be littered with ash, which sits on the dima of the thermal power plant, which works on the coals, works on the production of cement, fire pits, etc. For the sake of zabіgannya tsomu zarudnennya on the pipes install special sawmills.
Chemical contamination of ground waters. Streams of ground waters to move the trades of the great wanderers, and forever you can set up their dzherelo. The reason for the zabrudnennya is the possibility of mimicking toxic rivers with wooden and snowy waters from industrial names. Contamination of underground waters is also removed when naphtha is recovered by modern methods, if for the promotion of naphtha reservoirs near the Sverdloviny, salt water is re-injected, which rises to the surface at the same time as naphtha during the hour of pumping.
Salinized water is consumed at the aquifer, water at the wells fills with a hot taste and does not appear to be adventitious for drinking.
Noise confused. Dzherelom noise zabrudnennya can be a business enterprise chi transport. Particularly strong noise is made by important self-skids and trams. Noise is poured into the nervous system of a person, and to that, in places and at enterprises, come in whenever you want a noisemaker.
Railroads and tram lines and roads, which are used by vintage transport, need to be brought from the central parts of places in sparsely populated areas and create green plantings around them, so that the noise is good to be muffled.
Letaki are not guilty of flying over places.
Noise is reduced by decibels. The ticking of the anniversary is 10 dB, the whisper is 25, the noise from the main highway is 80, the noise of the wind at the sound is 130 dB. The pain threshold for noise is 140 dB. On the territory of the dwelling, forget the noise every day, the noise is not guilty of exceeding 50-66 dB.
Also, before fermentation, one can carry: fermentation on the surface of the soil with rotting rocks and ash, biological fermentation, thermal fermentation, radiation fertilization, electromagnetic fermentation.
Broken atmosphere. If we take the wandering over the ocean as a single thing, then over the villages there are 10 times, over small places - 35 times, and over great places - 150 times. Tovshchina to the sphere of the cloudy wind over the place to become 1.5 - 2 km.
The most unsafe drugs are benzo-a-pyrene, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, and saws. Near the European part of Russia and in the Urals in the middle stretch per 1 sq. km fell over 450 kg of atmospheric pollutants.
Porivnyano since 1980 the number of wikis with sirka dioxide increased by 1.5 times; 19 million tons of atmospheric pollutants released into the atmosphere by motor vehicles.
The discharge of wastewater from the river drained 68.2 cubic meters. km per stay 105.8 cu. km. Spozhivannya vodi promyslovistyu become 46%. Part of untreated sewage from 1989 change and become 28%.
Through the overcoming of the western winds, Russia takes away from the western lands 8-10 times more than the atmospheric pollutants, lowering them.
Acid woods have negatively pushed into half of the forests of Europe, starting the process of drying up of forests in Russia. In Scandinavia, 20,000 lakes have already perished through acid falls that come from Great Britain and FRN. Under the influx of acidic boards, the reminders of architecture are destroyed.
Shkіdlіvі rechovina, scho vykhodit from Dimar zavviški 100 m, rose within a radius of 20 km, zavviški 250 m - up to 75 km. The champion pipe was produced at a copper-nickel plant in Sudbury (Canada) and may have a height of over 400 m.
Ruinive ozone balloon of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is consumed into the atmosphere from gases of cooling systems (in the USA - 48%, and in other countries - 20%), in the form of aerosol cans (in the USA - 2%, and a few years of sales were blocked; in others kraїnah - 35%), retailers, which are used in dry cleaners (20%) and in the production of foam plastics, including styroform (25-
The main source of freon, which destroys the ozone ball, is industrial refrigerators - refrigerators. The largest single-button refrigerator has 350 g of freon, and industrial refrigerators have tens of kilograms. Refrigerator state is less
Moscow vikoristovu 120 tons of freon. Significant part of yoga, through the lack of possession of the atmosphere, is interrupted.
Zabrudnennya freshwater ecosystems. Lake Ladozka - a reservoir of drinking water for the six-million St. Petersburg - in 1989. 1.8 tons of phenols, 69.7 tons of sulphates, 116.7 tons of synthetic surface-active resources (PAR) were thrown off by the sewage waters.
Transverse water ecosystems and river transport. On Lake Baikal, for example, there are 400 ships of various sizes, the stench throws off nearly 8 tons of oil products on the river.
At the majority of enterprises in Russia, toxic wastes are either thrown off near the water reservoir, digging them out, or they accumulate, not recycled, often near the majestic kіlkostyakh. The accumulation of deadly waters can be called "environmental mines", when the rowing breaks, the stench can sink at the waterholes. The butt of such an "environmental mini" is the Cherepovets chemical plant "Ammophos". Yogo vіdstіynik occupies an area of 200 ha and occupies 15 million tons of inputs. The dam, yak obgorodzhuє vіdstіynik, shoroku pіdnіmayut on
4 m. Unfortunately, the "Cherepovets mine" is not one.
Near the krai, 9 million people are dying. Until 2000 Drinking water is not vistachatime more than 1 bln.
Zabrudnennya marine ecosystems. Close to 20 billion tons of smite have been dumped near the Ocean of Light - from the butovy effluents to radioactive outlets. Shoroku for leather 1 sq. km of water surface add another 17 tons of cement.
More than 10 million tons of oil waft into the ocean, which makes the smelting, which covers 10-15% of its surface; and 5 g of naphthoproducts should be extracted, to tighten with a 50 sq. m water surface. Tsya smelting does not only change the evaporation of heat and clay to carbon dioxide, but it also causes a sour starvation and death of eggs and young fish.
Radiation confusion. Let it go until 2000 r. accumulate in the world
1 million cubic meters m of highly active radioactive sources.
The natural radioactive background is poured onto the skin of a person, on the one that does not stick with AES or nuclear weapons. We all take a small dose of radiation for our lives, 73% of which falls on the treatment of natural bodies (for example, granite at the monuments, lining of the houses and in.), 14% - on medical procedures whom cabinet) and 14% - On the space exchange. For life (70 years), a person can, without a great risk, gain radiation of 35 ber (7 ber from natural dzherel, 3 ber from space dzherel and X-ray devices). Near the zone of Chornobyl AES, in the most overgrown villages, you can take up to 1 charge per year. The intensity of exposure to cover during the period of extinction at AES reached 30,000 roentgens per year, and without a radiation shield (lead suit), a lethal dose of exposure could be taken for 1 quill.
An annual dose of radiation, lethal for 50% of organisms, is 400 ber for humans, 1000-2000 for ribs and birds, 1000 to 150,000 for roslin and 100,000 ber for coma. In this rank, the strongest confusion is not a problem for the mass reproduction of komakh. From roslyn the least stalk to the radiation of the tree and the most stalk of grass.
Zabrudnennya pobutovym smіttyam. The amount of smittya that accumulates is constantly growing. Nini yoga on a skin city dweller falls from 150 to 600 kg per river. The biggest weight is in the USA (520 kg per river per one bag), in Norway, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands - 200-300 kg, and in Moscow - 300-320 kg.
In order for the natural medium to open paper, it is necessary for 2 to 10 years, a tin can - over 90 years, a filter for cigarettes - 100 years, a plastic bag - over 200 years, plastic - 500 years, and a glass - over 1000 years. fates.
Ways to change shkodi from chemical obscurations
The widest confusion is chemical. Іsnuє three main ways to change the shkodi in them.
Breeding. It is necessary to dilute purified effluents 10 times (and untreated - 100-200 times). High trumpets sporadzhuyut at the undertakings, gasses, which are thrown, and drank rose evenly. Breeding is an ineffective way to change shkodi in the form of confusion, it is only acceptable as a timchasovy zahіd.
Purification. This is the main way to change the idioms of shkidlivyh speeches in dovkil in Russia today. However, the result of purification is richly concentrated with rare and solid inputs, so savings are also brought.
Replacing old technologies with new ones - low-cost ones. For the sake of glibshoї reworking, you can reduce the number of shkіdlivy wikis in dozens of times. Come out of the virobnitstva become syrovina otherwise.
The environmentalists of the FRN gave figurative names to three ways of changing the turbidity of the superfluous medium: “put the pipe down” (bringing roses), “stop the pipe” (purification) and “tie the pipe with a knot” (low-cost technologies). The Nimtz inspired the ecosystem of the Rhine, like a long time ago a ditch, where the entrances of industrial giants were thrown. It didn’t take long for the 80s to work, if they “tied the pipe with a knot.”
Rivne zabrudnennya in the middle of Russia is even higher, and the environment is unfriendly, the population is not safe, it has developed in more than 100 cities of the country.
Deyakke polypshennya ecological situation in Russia has reached the beginning of the polypshennya work of cleansing spores and the fall of virobnitstv.
A further change in the wikis of the trash speeches in Dovkil can be achieved, as a result of less unsafe, low-cost technologies. However, in order to “tie the pipe with a knot”, it is necessary to upgrade the possessions at enterprises, which will require even greater investments and will be carried out step by step.
Places and industrial objects (naphtho-industry, kar'єri for the production of coal and ore, chemical and metallurgical plants) work for the energy account, which should come from other industrial ecosystems (energy complex), those products - not growing that creature biomass, and steel, chavun and aluminium, different machines and fittings, bud materials, plastics and a lot of other things, which are not found in nature.
Problems of ecology of the locality - ce nasampered the problem of changing the wiki in the navkolyshne middle of the various zabrudnyuvachiv and zahist vіd mist water, atmosphere, soil. Їх vyrіshuyut way to create new low-income technologies and virobnicheskih processes and efficient cleaning spores.
A great role is played by the help of the factors of the mіsk middle on the people to grow up. Planting greenery improves the microclimate, entices drank and gas, and positively injects into the mental state of the townspeople.
Literature:
Mirkin B.M., Naumova L.G. Ecology of Russia. Pdruchnik from the Federal set for 9 - 11 grades of the global education school. View. 2nd, revised.
I add. - M: AT MDS, 1996. - 272 s il.
Competitors and so on - are visibly minuscule in hours and space. The levels of skin sensitivity of these factors should be determined by the peculiarities of dovkil. For example, the temperature varies greatly on the surface of the land, but it may be more stable on the days of the ocean or in the depths of the cave.
One and the same factor of the medium can have a different meaning in life, the organisms linger. For example, the salty regime of the soil plays a primary role in the mineral eating of roslin, and the majority of terrestrial creatures. The intensity of illumination and the spectral warehouse of light are vignantly important in the life of phototrophic growths, and in the life of heterotrophic organisms (mushrooms and aquatic creatures) light does not give a littering impact on life.
Ecological officials work on organisms in a different way. The stench can be like a teaser that calls out the constant changes in physiological functions; as a meaner, which zomovlyuyut the impossibility of the quietness of other organisms in these minds; as modifiers that signify morphological and anatomical changes in organisms.
Classification of environmental factors
Accepted to see biotic, anthropogenicі abiotic Ecological factors.
- Biotic factors- all the impersonal factors of the medium, related to the activity of living organisms. Before them are phytogenic (roslin), zoogenic (creatures), microbiogenic (microorganisms) factors.
- Anthropogenic factors- all impersonal factors related to the activity of a person. Before them, one can see physical (distillation of atomic energy, moving in trains and planes, injecting noise and vibrations and others), and transport; biological (food products; organisms, for such people ) can buti dovkіllam or dzherelom eating), social (pov'yazanі z vіdnosinami people i zhiznі u suspіlstvі) factors.
- Abiotic factors- all impersonal factors associated with processes in inanimate nature. Climatic conditions (temperature conditions, water content, pressure), food-effects (mechanical storage, increased penetration, soil clearance), orographic (relief, elevation above the sea level), chemical (gas storage of wind, salt storage of water, concentration, acidic st), physical (Noise, magnetic fields, thermal conductivity, radioactivity, space vibration)
Often the classification of environmental factors (officials of the middle)
BY THE HOUR: evolutionary, historical, chinny
FOR THE PERIODIC: periodic, non-periodic
BY BLACKING VINIKNENNYA: primary, secondary
FOR TRAVELING: cosmic, abiotic (wine also abiogenic), biogenic, biological, biotic, natural-anthropogenic, anthropogenic (technogenic zocrema, zabrudnennya middle), anthropogenic (zocrema zanepokoennya)
FOR THE MIDDLE OF THE WINNING: atmospheric, aquatic (in the same water), geomorphological, edaphic, physiological, genetic, population, biocenotic, ecosystemic, biospheric
FOR CHARACTER: speech-energy, physical (geophysical, thermal), biogenic (wine biotic), informational, chemical (saltness, acidity), complex (environmental, evolutionary, system-forming, geographic, climatic)
FOR THE OBJECT: individual, group (social, etological, social-economic, social-psychological, specific (including human, social life)
FOR THE MIND OF THE MIDDLE: what to deposit in the area, what not to deposit in the area
PER STAGE INPLIVE: lethal, extreme, limiting, sickly, mutagenic, teratogenic; carcinogenic
BEHIND THE SPECTRUM OF IPLIVU: vibrkovy, zagalno dії
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Look at the same "Ecological factor" in other dictionaries:
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LIMITING FACTOR- (INTERMEDIATE) whether there is any environmental factor, some examples of indicators of some kind of intermediary life of the organism. Ecological glossary, 2001 A factor that limits (encloses) whether there is an environmental factor, ... Ecological vocabulary
Ecological- 23. Ecological passport of thermal power plant: title= Ecological passport of thermal power plant. Main provisions of LDNTP. L., 1990. Dzherelo: P 89 2001: Recommendations for diagnostic control of filtration and hydrochemical ... Glossary of terms for normative and technical documentation
CHINNIK ECOLOGICAL- be it power, or a component of the medium that flows into the body. Ecological Dictionary, 2001 Ecological factor whether power or a component of the medium, which flows into the body. Ecological vocabulary
environmental safety factor- Natural process, mindfulness of the evolution of the earth and what to produce directly and indirectly to a decrease in the quality of the components of the natural medium below the established standards. [RD 01.120.00 CTN 22806] Topics of main oil transportation … Dovіdnik technical translation
SAFETY FACTOR- Anthropogenic factor, which shkidly vplyvaetsya on the life of wild creatures. factors of anxiety can be different noises, without intervening people in the natural system; especially noticeable in the period of breeding offspring. Ecological vocabulary
SPEECH-ENERGY FACTOR- whether there is a factor, the strength of the injection of which is adequate to the flow of speech and energy that can be transferred. Porivn. Information clerk. Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. Chisinau: The head editor of the Moldavian Radian Encyclopedia. I.I. Did yu. 1989... Ecological vocabulary
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Spіlnot) between myself and z dovkіllam. This term was earlier adopted by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. As an independent science, it was seen at the beginning of the 20th century with physiology, genetics and others. The area of ecology stagnation is all organisms, populations and populations. Ecology is considered as a living component of the system, as it is called an ecosystem. In ecology, the understanding of the population is clear and distinct ecosystems.
Population (from the point of view of ecology) - a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same territory and, sound, that in the other world is isolated from other similar groups.
Spilnota - maybe a group of organisms of various species that linger on the same area and interact one with one at the sight of trophic (food) or open-air links.
The ecosystem is a whole of organisms with an important medium that interacts with each other and establishes an ecological unity.
All ecosystems of the Earth unite into one ecosphere. It dawned on me that it is impossible to capture the entire biosphere of the Earth with the achievements. Therefore, the point of stagnation of ecology is the ecosystem. However, the ecosystem, as you can see from the designation, is composed of populations of about 100 organisms and all factors of inanimate nature. That is why it is possible to spice up different approaches in the growing ecosystems.
Ecosystem Pidhid.With an ecosystem approach, an ecologist sees the flow of energy in the ecosystem. The greatest interest in this mindset is the mutuality of organisms between themselves and with the most common medium. Tsej pіdkhіd allows you to explain the collapsible structure of interrelations in the ecosystem and give recommendations on how to rationally protect nature.
Vivchennya spіlnot. At the same time, it is reported that the species warehouse of spivtovariant and factors that surround the widening of specific species are reported. In times, there are clearly remembered biotic units (meadow, forest, swamp thin.).
pidkhid. The point of zastosuvannya tsgogo pіdkhodu, as if screaming from the name, є population.
Vyvchennya mіsts of residence. In this vipadka, one can see a clearly homogeneous plot of the middle, where the whole organism lives. Okremo, as an independent direct investigation of the wines, do not sound zastosovuetsya, but give the necessary material for the understanding of the ecosystem in a flash.
It should be noted that all listed above should be ideally occupied in the complex, but at the same time it is practically impossible due to the significant scale of the objects that are being accounted for, and the interchange of a large number of field records.
Ecology, as a science, is a victorian's various methods of research, which allow us to obtain objective information about the functioning of natural systems.
Methods of environmental studies:
- watchfulness
- experiment
- shape of population
- modeling method
Ecological factors and understanding about ecological niche
Understanding the environmental factor
1.1.1. Understanding the environmental factor and their classification
From ecological positions Wednesday - all the natural bodies of that phenomenon, with which the organism survives in direct and indirect waters. Now the middle organism is characterized by majestic versatility, composed of impersonal dynamic elements, phenomena, minds, as factors .
Ecological factor - tse be-yak Umov's middle, zdatne nadavat direct chi mediations infusion on living organisms, wanting to stretch one of the phases of their individual development. In its own way, the organism reacts to the ecological factor with specific adhering reactions.
in such a manner, environmental factors- all the elements of the natural environment, like infusing the reason for the development of organisms, and like living things, react with reactions of attachment (beyond the borders of building attachment, death comes).
Significantly, what environmental officials work in nature in a complex way. It is especially important to remember, estimating the influx of chemical contaminants. Which one has a "cumulative" effect, if the negative effect of one speech is superimposed on the negative effect of others, and to which one is added an influx of a stressful situation, noise, various physical fields, which significantly changes the value of HD K, hover at the dovidnikah. This effect is called synergistic.
Most importantly we understand limiting factor something like this, the rіven (dose) of which is approaching the intervitrality of the body, the concentration of which is lower or more optimal. Tse understanding is determined by the laws of Liebich's minimum (1840) and Shelford's tolerance (1913). The most limiting factors are temperature, light, biogenic speech, leaks and pressure in the middle, and thinner.
The most widespread organisms with a wide range of tolerance to all environmental factors. The greatest tolerance is characteristic of bacteria and blue-green algae, which live in a wide range of temperatures, radiation, salinity, pH and other.
Ecological studies, due to the designation of environmental factors on the basis of the development of other species of organisms, mutually affecting the body with the necessary medium, the subject of science autecology . Rozdіl ekologii, which doslіdzhuє associativity of populations of different species of roslin, creatures, microorganisms (biocenoses), ways of their formation and interaction with the navkolishnim middle, called synecology . At the boundaries of synecology, one sees phytocenology, or geobotany (the object of cultivation is the grouping of roslin), biocenology (the grouping of creatures).
In this rank, understanding the environmental factor is one of the most important and overarchingly broad understanding of ecology. Vіdpovіdno to tsgogo zavdannya klasifіkatsії ekologichіchnyh faktorіv vyavilos more foldable, so scho zagalnopriynyâ variant dosі nemaє. At the same time, it was achieved to achieve the degree of excellence in the classification of environmental factors of singing signs.
Traditionally, three groups of environmental factors were seen:
1) abiotic (inorganic mind - chemical and physical, so, like a warehouse, repeat, water, soil, temperature, light, moisture, radiation, vice thinly);
2) biotic (forms of interaction between organisms);
3) anthropogenic (forms of activity).
Today, ten groups of environmental factors are divided (the total number is about sixty), united in a special classification:
1. by the hour - factors of the hour (evolutionary, historical, dynamic), periodicity (periodic and non-periodic), primary and secondary;
2. for trips (cosmic, abiotic, biotic, natural, technogenic, anthropogenic);
3. mid-life (atmospheric, water, geomorphological, ecosystem);
4. character (informational, physical, chemical, energetic, biological, complex, climatic);
5. according to the object of injection (individual, group, species, social);
6. beyond the stage of injection (lethal, extreme, interfering, overwhelmed, mutagenic, teratogenic);
7. for the minds of diї (deposit and independent in the form of space);
8. behind the spectrum of the infusion (vibration chia zagalno ї dії).
Nasampered, environmental factors are divided into outrageous (exogenous or entopic) that internal (endogenous) As far as the given ecosystem is concerned.
Before outrageous one can see the factors, which determine the changes that occur in the ecosystem, but the stench themselves practically do not perceive the intoxicating infusion. Such are sleepy radiation, the intensity of atmospheric fallout, atmospheric pressure, the wind speed, the flow of the leak.
At the sight of them internal officials sp_vv_dnosyasya with the power of the self-ecosystem (or okremih її komponentіv) that really utvoryuyut її warehouse. Such is the number and biomass of the population, the reserves of various rivers, the characteristics of the ground surface of the earth, the water mass of the ground mass is thin.
Another broadening of the classification principle - ce podіl factors on biotic і abiotic . To the first one, there are various changes that characterize the power of the living speech, and to the others - the inanimate components of the ecosystem of that її zvnіshny middle ground. Podil factors on endogenous - exogenous and on biotic - abiotic do not change. Zokrema, as well as exogenous biotic factors, for example, the intensity of the introduction of a certain species into the ecosystem, as well as endogenous abiotic factors, as well as a concentration of 2 or 2 in the surface sphere, either or water.
Widely used in environmental literature to know the classification of factors infamous nature of their adventures or object infusion. For example, among exogenous differences are meteorological (climatic), geological, hydrological, migratory (biogeographic), anthropogenic factors, and among endogenous - micrometeorological (bioclimatic), soil (edaphic), water and b otichnі.
An important classification indicator nature of dynamics environmental factors, especially the presence or the daily occurrence of periodicity (additional, monthly, seasonal, bagatoric). It is due to the fact that the inherent reactions of organisms to the quietest factors of the medium are determined by the degree of the state of these factors, tobto their periodicity.
Biologist A.S. Monchadsky (1958) saw primary periodic factors, secondary periodic factors and non-periodic factors.
Before primary periodic factors lie more important than the appearances, tied to the wrappings of the Earth: change of feast of fate, additional change of illumination, tide of the appearance is thin. Factors, like the power of the correct periodicity, continued until the appearance of life on Earth, and living organisms, which blame, were obliged to adapt to them.
Secondary periodic factors - The last of the first periodic ones: for example, moisture content, temperature, fall, dynamics of dewy water, instead of varying gases near water, etc.
Before non-periodic factors, yakі do not think of the correct periodicity, cyclicality. Such є ґruntovo-ґruntovі factori, a different kind of natural phenomenon. Anthropogenic in the middle is often placed before non-periodic officials, which can appear rapt and irregularly. Shards of the dynamics of natural periodic factors are one of the destructive forces of natural selection and evolution, living organisms, as a rule, do not experience the vibration of constant reactions, for example, to a sharp change in the place of quiet chi chi іnshih houses in the middle of nowhere.
The role of medium environmental factors is especially important. summative (additive) factors that characterize the number, biomass, or population density of organisms, as well as the stock or concentration of various forms of speech and energy, the timing of changes in accordance with the laws of conservation. Similar factors are called resources . For example, talking about the resources of heat, water, organic and mineral water is too short. On vіdmіnu vіd them such factors, like intensity and spectral warehouse of radiation, noise level, oxide-water potential, wind speed or leaks, expansion and form їzhі thinly, like strongly vplyvayut on organisms, do not lie down to the category resources .k. before them there is no zastosovnі laws of conservation.
The number of different environmental factors is potentially irrelevant. However, beyond the stage of infusion on organisms, the stench is far from being equal, after which, in ecosystems of various types, the factors are seen as the most significant, or imperative . In terrestrial ecosystems of the middle exogenous chinniki, as a rule, one can see the intensity of sony radiation, the temperature and moisture content of the soil, the intensity of atmospheric precipitation, the wind speed, the wind speed, the presence of those other germs, or at the fusion of mature individuals from other ecosystems, as well as all forms of anthropogenic infusion. Endogenous imperative factors in terrestrial ecosystems є:
1) micro-meteorological - illumination, temperature and moisture of the surface balloon, instead of new CO 2 and O 2;
2) soils - temperature, water content, soil aeration, physical and mechanical power, chemical storage, humus content, availability of mineral living elements, oxide-water potential;
3) biological - population size of various species, their age and state structure, morphological, physiological and behavioral characteristics.
1.1.2. The expanse of environmental factors and the function of monitoring organisms on the succession of environmental factors
The intensity of the influx of the skin environmental factor can be numerically characterized, so it is described by a mathematical variable, which increases the value on the effective scale.
Ecological officials can be aligned with the power to inject into the body, population, ecosystem, etc. ranked . Like the value of the first factor, the strength of the influx of the factor dies out X 1, another - change X 2 , … , n th - zminnoy x n and so on, the whole complex of environmental factors can be presented as a sequence ( X 1 , X 2 , … , x n, …). In order to characterize the impersonal and varied complexes of environmental officials, they possess, with different meanings of the skin, to fully understand the scope of environmental officials, in other words, the environmental space.
Expanse of environmental factors called the Euclidean expanse, the coordinates of any ranking of environmental factors:
For a calculus characteristic, environmental factors should be added to indicators of the vitality of individuals, such as the growth rate, development, fertility, life survival, mortality, eating, metabolism, alcohol activity, etc. (let the stench be numbered with an index k= 1, …, m), to introduce understanding about f at n before cі I X
about T before lі ka
.
Values that are accepted with the number k on a singing scale with varying environmental factors, as a rule, the environment is lower and higher. Significantly through 
Vіdrіzok on the scale the value of one of the indications ( k th) life of the ecosystem.
View function k-th indicator for the succession of environmental factors ( X 1 , X 2 , … , x n, …) the function is called φk, which reflects the ecological space E on the scale Ik:
,
like skin dots ( X 1 , X 2 , … , x n, …) space E enter the number φk(X 1 , X 2 , … , x n, …) on the scale Ik .
Although a number of environmental factors are potentially unfenced and, therefore, the diversity of environmental space is not limited E that number of arguments in the function φk(X 1 , X 2 , … , x n, ...), it is true that we can see the last number of factors, for example n, for the help of which it is possible to explain the given part of the total variation of the function of the review. For example, the first 3 factors can explain 80% of the total variation of the indicator φ , First 5 factors - 95%, first 10 - 99% and so on. Їx injection can be like a deaky " ecological noise that is superimposed on the cause of imperative factors.
Tse allows in the unlimited space E go to new n-peaceful subspace En and look at the sound of the audio function φk on this subspace:
why, de εn+1 - vipadkovy " environmental noise".
Whether a living organism needs temperature, water content, mineral and organic speech like other chinniki, yakі sing mode, then є deyakі upper and lower between the amplitudes of admissible kolivan tsikh chinnikіv. What is wider between any clerk, then more stability, then tolerance given organism.
In typical modes, the function of regression takes the form of a swollen curve, which grows monotonically in view of the minimum value of the factor xj s (lower intertolerance) to a maximum at the optimal value of the factor xj 0 i monotonically decreases to the maximum value of the factor xj e (upper tolerance limit).
interval Xj = [xj s , xj e] is called tolerance interval behind the cim factor, and the point xj 0 , in which case the function reaches an extremum, is called optimum point for the cym factor.
Some of the environmental officials themselves unequally inject into the organisms of various species that live together. For some, stench can be friendly, for others - not. An important element is the reaction of organisms to the strength of the infusion of the environmental factor, which is negative for which can be blamed for overdose or inappropriate doses. Therefore, it’s understandable for a pleasant dose or optimum zone factor ta zoni pesimumu (The range of the dose factor in which the organisms feel reduced).
Ranges of zones of optimum and maximum and criteria for designation ecological valence - The vitality of a living organism is attached to the change of the minds of the middle. Kіlkіsno won vyyavlyaєtsya range of the middle, at the boundaries of which kind of normally іsnuє. Ecological valency of different species can be different (winter deer is affected by temperature fluctuations from -55 to +25÷30°С, and tropical corals die even after temperature changes by 5-6 °С). For ecological valency, organisms are subdivided into stenobionty - with a small presence to change the middle (orchids, trout, far-reaching hazel grouse, abyssal ribi) and euribionty - With greater attachment to the change of the navkolishny middle ground (Colorado potato beetle, mouse, scurry, wovka, targani, ocheret, piry). At the boundaries of eurybionts and stenobionts, according to a specific organism, the organisms are divided into eurythermic and stenothermic (by reaction to temperature), euryhaline and stenohaline (by reaction to the salinity of the water medium), euryphoty and stenofoty (by light reaction).
In order to achieve the best tolerance of tolerance, in ecology there are a number of terms in which prefixes are used wall - which means narrow, that Jewish - Wide. You see that there is a narrow tolerance interval (1), they are called stenokami , but see with a wide tolerance interval (2) - Jews for the cym factor. For imperative factors є power terms:
for temperature: stenothermic - eurythermic;
by water: stenogіdrіchny - evrigіdrіchny;
by salinity: stenohaline - euryhaline;
according to zhі: stenophagnia - euryphagnus;
according to the choice of place of residence: stіnostіyky - evrіoykny.
1.1.3. Law of the limiting factor
Presence of chi prosvetannya to an organism at tsom mіstseperebuvannі to lie down in a complex of ecological chinniki. According to the skin factor, there is a range of tolerance, beyond the boundaries of which the organism is not known. The impossibility of prosperity for the body is determined by these officials, the meaning of which is coming for the inter-tolerance.
Limiting We will take into account such a factor, for which, for the achievement of a given (small) perceptible change, the function of the indicator requires a minimum perceptible change factor. Yakscho
then the limiting factor will be Xl, tobto limiting factor, uzdovzh any directing gradієnt funktії vіdguku.
It is obvious that the gradient is normalized to the inter-tolerance area. And for the limiting factor, there are more chances for all other equal minds to go beyond the inter-fields of tolerance. That is the limiting factor, the value of which is the closest to the lower tolerance interval. Tsya concept vіdoma yak " minimum law Liebikh.
The idea of those that the vitality of the organism is considered the weakest link in the implementation of its ecological needs, was first clearly shown in the 1840s. organic chemist Y. Liebikh, one of the founders of agrochemistry, who theory of mineral food roslyn. Vіn buv first, hto having planted the influx of various factors on the growth of roslin, having established that the planting of crops is often limited by not the same elements of eating, as it is necessary for great kilkos, such, for example, as carbon dioxide, water, shards qi speeches ring out present in the middle of prosperity , and timi, yakі need in the smallest quantities, for example, zinc, boron chalіzo, there are few of them in the soil. Visnovok Libіha about those who "grow more and more to fall due to that element of life, which is present in the minimum number", becoming like the libikhov's "minimum law".
After 70 years of American teachings, V. Shelford showed that not only speech, but present in a minimum, can signify innate vitality to the body, and that too much of any element can lead to bad breath. For example, excess mercury in the body of a person, according to the age up to a certain norm, causes important functional discord. In case of insufficiency of water in the soil, the assimilation of the growth elements of the mineral life is difficult, but it is too much to lead to similar nasledkіv: it is possible to suffocate the roots, vyniknenny anaerobic processes, sour the soil thinly. Too low pH in the soil also lowers the yield in this area. According to W. Shelford, factors that are present both in excess, and in non-strike, are called limiting, and in general the rule took away the name of the law "limiting factor" or " the law of tolerance ".
The law of the limiting factor is protected at the entrances in order to protect the necessary medium in the form of confusion. Moving norms of shkіdlivih domіshok near povіtrі that water become a serious threat to people's health.
You can formulate a few additional principles that supplement the "law of tolerance":
1. Organisms can develop a wide range of tolerance for one factor and a narrow range for another.
2. Organisms with a wide range of tolerance to all factors will sound the most wide.
3. If you think of one environmental factor that is not optimal for the species, then there may be a range of tolerance to other environmental factors.
4. In nature, organisms are often held in mind, as they do not correspond to the optimal range of that other environmental factor, assigned in the laboratory.
5. The period of reproduction is critical; in this period, rich factors in the middle often become limiting. Between tolerances for individuals that breed, now, embryos and sprouts, call already, lower for mature growths or creatures that do not breed.
The differences between tolerances in nature may always appear earlier, lower potency range of activity. This is due to the fact that metabolic effects on physiological regulation at extreme values of factors sound the range of tolerance. With minds close to extreme values, adaptation becomes dearer, and the body becomes less protected from other officials, for example, sickness and hizhakiv.
1.1.4. Acts of the main abiotic factors
Abiotic factors of the terrestrial medium . The abiotic component of the terrestrial environment represents a combination of climatic and soil-ground factors, which are composed of impersonal dynamic elements, which are poured in like one on one, so on alive.
The most common abiotic officials of the terrestrial environment are as follows:
1) Promenista energy that comes from the Sontsya (Radiation). Expand in the open like electromagnetic winds. Serve as the main source of energy for more processes in ecosystems. From one side, direct light on the protoplasm is deadly for the organism, from the other side, it is light to serve as the primary source of energy, without any impossibility of life. Therefore, there are a lot of morphological and behavioral characteristics of organisms in relation to the top of the problem. Light is not only a life-important factor, but also a limiting factor, moreover, at the maximum, and at the minimum level. Nearly 99% of the energy of dormouse radiation becomes the change with long-term stubble 0.17÷4.0 µm, including 48% falls on the visible part of the spectrum from long-sleeve streak 0.4÷0.76 µm, 45% - on wheeze from 0.75 µm to 1 mm) . and close to 7% - on ultraviolet (wrinkle is less than 0.4 microns). Infrared changes are more important for life, and in the processes of photosynthesis, orange-red and ultraviolet changes play the most important role.
2) Illumination of the earth's surface , due to the change of energy and it depends on the trivality and intensity of the light flow. In the wake of the wrapping of the Earth, the light and dark hours of the doby are periodically drawn. Illumination plays the most important role for all living things and organisms are physiologically adapted to the change of day and night, to the lightness of the dark and light periods. Almost all creatures have this name circadian (add) rhythms of activity, connected with the change of day and night. By the time the light grows, they grow on light-loving and tenevitrival.
3) Temperature on the surface of the earth depends on the temperature regime of the atmosphere and is closely related to sony symptoms. To deposit like in the latitude of the mine (the fall of the sony viperification on the surface), so in the temperature of the raised masses that come. Living organisms can only be found at narrower boundaries of the temperature range - from -200°C to 100°C. As a rule, the upper limit values of the factor are more critical than the lower ones. The range of temperature fluctuations in water is smaller, lower on land, and the range of tolerance to temperature in aquatic organisms is narrower, lower in other terrestrial creatures. Thus, temperature is an important and often limiting factor. Temperature rhythms at the same time with light, tidal rhythms change the water content in a significant world to control the seasonal and additional activity of growing plants and creatures. Temperature often creates zoning and stratification of Dovkil.
4) Atmospheric moisture content , due to the abundance of water vapor The greatest richness in the water of the lower atmosphere (up to a height of 1.5÷2 km), deconcentrates up to 50% of the water vapor. The amount of water vapor that roams the wind, lie down at the temperature of the wind. If the temperature is high, then more vologists should take revenge again. for skin temperature maximum . Retail between the maximum and given names to bear the name water deficiency (Nastachі nasichennya). Water deficiency - the most important environmental parameter, wine scales characterize two quantities at once: temperature and water content. It seems that the increase in the deficiency of moisture in the sings during the growing season will help the increased fruiting of the roslin, and in a number of creatures, for example, coma, to produce up to reproduction right up to the so-called spalakhiv. Therefore, on the analysis of the dynamics of the deficiency of moisture, there are rich methods for predicting various phenomena in the world of living organisms.
5) fall down , closely related to the moisture content of the air, as a result of the condensation of water vapor. Atmospheric falloffs and water content again may be of primary importance for the formation of the water regime of the ecosystem and, in such a rank, enter the most important environmental factors, the lack of water safety - the most important of the mind's life of any organism, in from microscopic bacteria to giant sequoia. A large number of fall deposits fall mainly in the form of paths and the nature of the great displacement of the affected masses, or so the titles of weather systems. Rozpodіl opadіv on the pores of rock - steal an important limiting factor for organisms. fall down - one of the lanes at the circle of water on the Earth, and in their ways there is a sharp unevenness, at the link with which they see humid (vologі) that arid (Dry) zones. Falling maximum in tropical forests (up to 2000 mm/rek), minimum – in pustles (0.18 mm/rek). Zones with a quantity of falling less than 250 mm / r_k are already considered dry. As a rule, the uneven distribution of fall along the pores of the rock thrives in the tropics and subtropics, which is often good for the weather and the dry season. In the tropics, the seasonal rhythm of water regulates the seasonal activity of organisms (especially reproduction) approximately the same way as the seasonal rhythm of temperature and light regulates the activity of organisms in the peace zone. In the calmer climates, fall off, ring out the roses for the seasons even more.
6) Atmosphere gas storage . Warehouse її vіdno stіyny і including іn important nitrogen і kisenі z vіdіshkou negligible quantity 2 і argon. Other gases - in trace kilkostakh. In addition, ozone escapes from the upper spheres of the atmosphere. Sound in the atmospheric surface of the presence of hard and rare parts of water, oxides of various speeches, saw and dima. Nitrogen - the most important biogenic element, which in the study of the protein structures of organisms; kissen , it is important to walk in the green growths, to ensure the oxidation processes; carbon dioxide (СО 2) є natural damper of sony and earthly vibrations in the air; ozone vikonuє screen role of the ultraviolet part of the sony spectrum, detrimental to the living. The houses of the most important particles pour into the transparency of the atmosphere, cross the passage of sleepy promenades to the Earth. The concentration of sour (21% per obsyagom) and CO 2 (0.03% per obsiagom) in the modern atmosphere is the singing world limiting for the richest growing plants and creatures.
7) Ruh povitryanyh mas (wind) . The reason for blaming the wind is the difference in pressure, caused by various heatings of the earth's surface. Wind flow of straightening at a small vice, so that there, warm it up again. The power of the wrapping of the Earth infuses the circulation of the masses. At the surface of the globe, the wind flows into all the meteorological elements of the climate: the temperature regime, moisture, evaporation from the surface of the Earth and the transpiration of the growths. Wind - the most important factor in the transfer of that rose under the house in the atmosphere. Wind wins an important function of the transport of speech and living organisms between ecosystems. In addition, the wind blows without a middle mechanical influx on the growth of the soil, gently dipping or lowering the growth and the ruynuyuchi of the soil cover. Similar vibrancy to the wind is most typical for open spaces of dry land, seas, and coastal regions of the mountains.
8) Atmosphere vice . Tisk can not be called a limiting factor of uninterrupted action, although some creatures, posture doubtful, react to this change; Prote tisque can be directly applied until the weather is like that, as if to give a direct limiting injection on the organisms.
Abiotic factors of ground cover . Soil factors may be clearly endogenous in nature, shards priming - not only a “factor” of the middle, which exudes organisms, but a product of their own life. Priming - the whole framework, the foundation, which will have the best possible ecosystem.
Priming – sub-bag result of dif- ferent climate and organisms, especially growing ones, on the mother breed. In this order, the soil is formed from the external material - the underlying mineral substrateі organic component, in which the organism and the products of their life are mixed with finely detailed and changed material. The gaps between the particles are filled with gases and water. The texture is soil porosity - the most important characteristics, which are rich in why the accessibility of biogenic elements to roslins and soil creatures is determined. In the soil, the processes of synthesis, biosynthesis, various chemical reactions of the transformation of speeches proceed, and they are caused by the life of bacteria.
1.1.5. Biotic factors
Pid biotic factors to understand the succession of influxes of life of some organisms in others.
Mutually between creatures, roslins, microorganisms (they are also called co-actions ) supra-soundingly different. Їх can be added to straightі indirectly, mediated through changing its presence in the presence of various abiotic factors
Interactions of living organisms are classified by looking at their reactions to each other. Zocrema, see homotypic reactions between interdependent individuals of the same kind heterotypic reactions during coactions between individuals of different species
One of the most important biotic factors is grub (trophic) factor . The trophic factor is characterized by quantity, quality and availability. Whether it be a kind of creature, or grow up, it can be clear vibratory to the warehouse. Separate see monophages that only one species eats, polyphages , who are eating dekilcoma species, and also see that they are eating more and less with an assortment of food, ranks are wide or higher oligophages .
Vzaєmini mizh species є naturally necessary. Can't share see vorogiv that ix victims, Oskіlki vzaєmini mіzh types vzaєmozvorotnі. Signature ² sacrifice² can be called up to date ² enemy².