“The image of a person in the era of antiquity and the Renaissance. (Common and Difference) ". MHC lesson grade 10.
Lesson form: research lesson (through dialogue).
goal: understanding by students that the Renaissance is not a simple repetition of ancient traditions.
Tasks:
Revealing the differences between the portrait art of antiquity and the Renaissance.
Development of students' ability to analyze works of art.
Lesson outline:
Formulation of the hypothesis.
Step-by-step analysis of works of antiquity and the Renaissance through discussion with students:
A) identification of external features common to portraits of antiquity. Completing the table;
B) Identification of signs common to the portraits of the Renaissance. Filling the table;
C) Characteristics of the content of the works of ancient art and art of the Renaissance;
D) Summing up the results of the discussion by the teacher. Filling the table.
The final part of the lesson (conclusion).
During the classes.
The cultural center of the Renaissance is Italy, for which the term "Renaissance" had its original meaning - the revival of the traditions of ancient culture.
Let's put forward a hypothesis: the Renaissance is not a simple repetition of ancient traditions. The Renaissance is their new understanding.
We will conduct a study aimed at identifying the difference in the embodiment of the image of a person in the antique art of the Renaissance.
Video sequence: 1. Leonardo da Vinci. "Portrait of Mona Lisa".
2.Rafael "Self-portrait".
3. Andrea del Sarto "Portrait of a Young Man".
Question: What have you noticed in common in Renaissance portraits? (As a result of the discussion by the teacher, the final version of the answer is formulated: in the portraits of the Renaissance, faces are always given close-up. They are beautiful, sometimes with irregular facial features, but very individual.)
Video sequence:1. Lysippos. "Portrait of Alexander the Great".
The result of the discussion is formulated by the students: in antiquity there is a genre of portrait, but it is rather not a portrait of a given person, but an image of a certain human type. He is impersonal (impersonal).
Video sequence: 1. Polycletus "Dorifor"
2.Paxitor. "Hermes with the Child Dionysus."
3. Phidias "Athena Parthenos".
Question: How can you characterize the harmony of ancient art? (after discussion the final version of the answer is formulated by the teacher: The harmony of ancient art is calm and contemplative).
Video sequence: 1. Michelangelo "David".
2. "The Bound Prisoner".
3. "Lamentation over Christ."
4. "Moses".
After discussion: in the works of the Renaissance, the colossal will of man was expressed and realized, sometimes immense, but demonstrating the possibility of independence and independence.
RENAISSANCE
ANTIQUITY
1. Face portraits are always close-up, they are beautiful, sometimes with irregular facial features, but very individual.
1. There is a genre of portrait, but it is rather not a portrait of a given person, but an image of a certain human type. He is impersonal.
2. A colossal will, sometimes excessive, but demonstrating the possibility of independence and independence was expressed and realized in the works.
2. Harmony is calm and contemplative.
3. Rise of individuality.
Thus, we see that the image of a person plays an important role in antiquity and the Renaissance. This is the basis of their community, but the Renaissance refers to man as an independent being, possessing free will and therefore having the right to individuality. In antiquity, however, a person feels himself to be only a particle of the Universe, depending on the gods and external forces.
Homework:
On the basis of the table, compile a description of one of the works of art of antiquity or Renaissance presented in the lesson.
To independently outline general information about the art of the Proto-Renaissance, using the Encyclopedia of Art or other sources.
Questions to the topic:
What is the originality of portraits of the era of antiquity?
What are the features of Renaissance portraiture?
What is common and what is the difference between the attitude towards man in the era of antiquity and in the era of the Renaissance?
Antiquity
The ancient culture of the Mediterranean is considered one of the most important creations of mankind. Limited by space (mainly the coast and islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas) and time (fromII millennium BC e. until the first centuries of Christianity), ancient culture expanded the framework of historical existence, rightfully declaring itself the universal significance of architecture and sculpture, epic poetry and drama, natural science and philosophical knowledge.
Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations occupied territories located geographically close to each other, existed almost at the same time, so there is nothing surprising that they are closely related. Both civilizations had different cultures that evolved by interacting with each other.
Antiquity showed the world various forms of organization of the human community - political and social. Democracy was born in Ancient Greece, opening up enormous humanistic possibilities for free expression of the will of full citizens, the combination of freedom and organized political action. Rome gave examples of a well-oiled republican system of life and government, and then an empire - not only as a state, but as a special form of coexistence of many peoples with a special role of central power, as a state “pacification” of many tribes, languages, religions and lands. Rome opened to the world the essential role of law and regulation of all types of human relations and showed that without perfect law there can be no normally existing society, that the law must guarantee the rights of a citizen and a person, and the state's business is to enforce the law.
Antiquity bequeathed to subsequent eras the maxim "man is the measure of all things" and showed what heights a free man can reach in art, knowledge, politics, state building, and finally, in the most important thing - in self-knowledge and self-improvement. Beautiful Greek statues became the standard of the beauty of the human body, Greek philosophy - the model of the beauty of human thinking, and the best deeds of Roman heroes - examples of the beauty of civil service and state creation.
In the ancient world, a grandiose attempt was made to combine the West and the East with a single civilization, to overcome the disunity of peoples and traditions in a great cultural synthesis, which revealed how fruitful the interaction and interpenetration of cultures is. One of the results of this synthesis was the emergence of Christianity, which was born as the religion of a small community on the outskirts of the Roman world and gradually turned into a world religion.
Art
Unprecedented earlier in history, the feeling of a person as a free citizen ("political being") was reflected in artistic culture, art, and caused their extraordinary rise and flowering. The achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans are so grandiose that the entire history of world art is unthinkable without ancient plots, Greek and Roman mythology, antique canons and samples.
Antique art (V— IV centuries BC BC) are rightly called a classic, since it was a role model in the embodiment of perfect beauty, where the virtue of the soul, the power of the mind, is completely merged with the beauty of the body. This could be most fully conveyed in sculpture. Plutarch drew attention to the importance of sculpture in the life of the Greeks, who noted that there were more statues in Athens than living people.
Greek plasticity reached its perfection in the work of the great Phidias, who created many beautiful creations, among which the famous statue of Olympian Zeus, made of ivory and gold, stood out. The majestic 14-meter statue of a formidable god sitting on a throne was the embodiment of wisdom and humanity. She was ranked among the seven "wonders of the world" and is known only from descriptions and images on ancient coins.
Other sculptors who glorified ancient art include: Praxiteles, who was the first in history to depict Aphrodite as a naked beautiful woman (Aphrodite of Cnidus); Lysippos, who left to the descendants a beautiful portrait of Alexander the Great (also preserved in a Roman copy); Leochares, author of the legendary Apollo of Belvedere.
Architecture
Along with sculpture, ancient architecture reached the highest flowering, many monuments of which, fortunately, have survived to this day. The Great Parthenon, the ruins of the Colosseum impress with their beauty and grandeur even today.
The dominant principle of expediency, clarity and boldness of engineering thinking made it possible to satisfy both the everyday needs of the large population and the sophisticated aesthetic taste of aristocrats (their villas with parks and palaces were fabulous). Etruscan traditions in architecture and the invention of concrete allowed the Romans to move from simple beamed ceilings to arches, vaults and domes.
The Romans went down in history as outstanding builders. They erected monumental structures, even the ruins of which are still amazing. These include amphitheaters, circuses, stadiums, baths (public baths), palaces of emperors and nobles. In Rome, they built apartment buildings - insulas - of 3-6, and sometimes even 8 floors.
Roman temples with a rectangular shape and porticoes resembled those of the Greek, but unlike the latter, they were erected on high platforms with stairs (podiums). In Roman temple architecture, the type of rotunda was used, that is, a round temple. This was one of the oldest temples - the temple of Vesta. The most significant achievement of Roman building technology was the temple of all the gods - the Pantheon in Rome. The dome of the Pantheon, 43 m in diameter, was considered the largest in the world.
Undoubtedly, the most grandiose Roman building is the building of the amphitheater - the Colosseum, which was an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m. The Colosseum wall had a height of 50 m and consisted of three tiers.
Back in II in. BC e. Roman builders invented concrete, which contributed to the spread of arched-vaulted structures that have become a characteristic element of Roman architecture, such as the triumphal arches - monuments to military and imperial glory. A number of arches - arcades were used in the construction of multi-tiered stone bridges, inside which there were pipes supplying water to the city. The foundation of the Colosseum was built from concrete (I c.) with a depth of 5 m. Fortresses, bridges, aqueducts, port piers, roads were built from concrete.
Theatre
Among the various entertainments so beloved in antiquity, the theater occupied a particularly important place in the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans - it performed various functions, including moral - ethical, educational, humanistic. In AthensV in. BC e., which became the center of literary, poetic creativity, flourished tragedy and comedy. Tragedy - a direct translation of "song of the goats" - arises from a choral song sung by satyrs dressed in goats' skins and depicting the constant companions of the god of wine Dionysus. It became the official form of creativity when the national holiday of Great Dionysius was approved in Athens.
The most popular were the tragedies of the three greatest Athenian playwrights: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Each of them in his own way solved the problems of good and evil, fate and retribution, joy and compassion. Aristotle in Poetics, defining tragedy, says that it "through compassion and fear, purifies such passions," causes catharsis (purification).
The flourishing of another genre - comedy is associated with the name of Aristotle. The plots for the comedies were taken from the then political life of Athens, in contrast to the tragedies, the plots of which were based on the mythological past. The artistic images created by famous playwrights are distinguished by the depth of psychological characteristics and have excited many generations of viewers over the centuries. Prometheus, Oedipus, Medea, Phaedra personify the legendary past of ancient times.
Literature
The development of ancient literature, which grew out of folklore, from heroic legends about the past, is closely connected with the ancient theater. The written period of ancient Greek literature begins with the poems of Homer and continues in the didactic epic of Hesiod ("Theogony", "Works and Days"). One of the best Roman lyricists was Catullus, who dedicated many love poems to the famous beauty Claudia. However, the "golden age" for Roman poetry was during the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). In the "age of Augustus" three of the most famous Roman poets lived and worked: Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Virgil's unfinished Aeneid glorified the greatness of Rome, the Roman spirit. Horace highly appreciated the poet's appointment, which found expression in his famous "Monument", which was imitated by many poets, including Alexander Pushkin. The undoubted pinnacle of Roman love lyrics is the work of Ovid, which was embodied in such famous works as the poems "Metamorphoses", "Science of Love", etc.
The educator of Nero, the famous philosopher Seneca, made a significant contribution to the development of the tragic genre. It was this ancient tragedy that the playwrights of the New Age chose as a role model. Seneca's tragedies are written in the spirit of a "new style": protracted, pathetic monologues, cumbersome metaphors and comparisons are intended more for the reader than for the viewer.
Olympic Games
The most vivid expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games, which Greece gave to the world. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776 BC. e. the name of the winner in the race was first written on a marble plaque, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove Altis. The place was chosen very well. All buildings, both early and later - temples, treasuries, a stadium, a hippodrome were erected in a flat valley, framed by soft hills covered with dense greenery. Nature in Olympia is, as it were, imbued with the spirit of peace and prosperity that was established during the Olympic Games. In the sacred grove, thousands of spectators set up their camp. But they came here not only for the sake of competitions, trade deals were concluded here, poets, orators and scientists spoke to the audience with their new speeches and works, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to those present. The state had the right to announce new laws, treaties, and other important documents here. Once every four years, a holiday was held, equal to which antiquity did not know - a holiday of spiritual communication between the best minds and the most brilliant talents of Greece.
2. Formation of Ukrainian culture.
The influence of neighboring cultures on the culture of Ukraine
Since ancient times, the cultural space of Ukraine has felt the influence of neighboring pre-state and state integrations. The Slavic lands were subjected to constant attacks by nomadic tribes: Avars, Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsians. In the XII century, various tribes fell into dependence on Kievan Rus. Communicating with the Slavs, they were subject to mutual cultural influences, often assimilated with the local population.
In the IX-X centuries. the influence of Byzantium and the countries of the "Byzantine circle" was significant. Already ancient chronicles, chronicles and other sources testify to dynastic and spiritual contacts of Kievan Rus and with neighboring European states. The fusion of Byzantine and Western traditions with the Kiev cultural heritage became the basis for the formation of a kind of Ukrainian cultural identity.
In the 13th century, the threat to the Kiev state was represented by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors (from 1239), the German knights-crusaders, who in 1237 formed a powerful state by uniting the Livonian and Teutonic orders, Hungary, since 1205 temporarily subjugated the Ukrainian lands to its power, in particular, Transcarpathia; in the period from the 14th to the beginning of the 17th centuries, the colonization of the Lithuanian state began, which seized Volyn, from 1362 Kiev, Pereyaslav, Podolsk, Chernigov-Seversky lands, Poland, which spread its influence on Galicia and Western Volhynia, Moldova, gazing to Northern Bukovina and Danube, Crimean Khanate (zone of influence - Northern Black Sea and Azov), Turkish Empire.
In the 16th century, the process of mutual enrichment of Ukrainian culture, with its dominant Cyril and Methodian tradition, with the cultural achievements of the Catholic world in Central and Western Europe, continued. Exactly on the Ukrainian lands a synthesis of two cultural traditions took place, the consequence of which was the formation of a new general type of culture for the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.
Since the second half of the 17th century, the main influence on the development of the culture of Ukraine has been exerted by the Russian state. In 1653, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich convened the Zemsky Sobor, which decided that during the name of the Orthodox faith and the holy church of God, the tsar must accept the Ukrainians "under his high hand."
Great Russian and Ukrainian, the two largest varieties among the Slavic tribes. Historical fate has brought them together more than once, and in the first centuries of their historical life, the role of the architect, the leading element in cultural and political life, the most important element in Eastern Europe, was played by the Ukrainian people, but their belonging to a single ethnic consortium is undoubted
Influence of pre-Christian and Christian culture in Kievan Rus
Historical science testifies: a high, distinctive culture developed in Kievan Rus long before the adoption of Christianity. There is no doubt that a century before the general official baptism of Rus, in 988, there were Christians of Russian and Varangian origin in Kiev, there was a cathedral church in Podil, "above Ruchai", there were squad mounds in which the dead soldiers were buried without the obligatory pagan burning ... And there were literate people. The naive idea of \u200b\u200bthe complete savagery of the Slavs at the time of the baptism of Russia corresponds to the church thesis "Paganism is darkness, Christianity is light", but does not correspond to historical reality. For about a century and a half, Kievan Rus existed as a pagan state. The cities that emerged - the courts of princes of different ranks, from tribal "any princes" to "bright princes" of tribal unions (Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) to the Grand Duke of Kiev himself, have long since overcome primitiveness and have become significantly stronger. The Russian military nobility paved the main routes to the south - to Byzantium, and to the west - to the German lands along the Upper Danube, and to the fabulous countries of the East. Long-distance trade expeditions enriched the Russians not only with silk, brocade, weapons, but also with knowledge, broadened their horizons, introduced, as far as possible, to world culture. The Rus were already known throughout the Old World, from France, in the West, to Afghanistan, in the East.
Byzantium brought Christianity and highly developed literature and art to Kievan Rus. The eradication of paganism and the implantation of overseas Christianity will subsequently make it possible to create a powerful ideology, which gradually entered the everyday consciousness of people. Moreover, protected by the Slavic writing of Cyril and Methodius, the powerful sovereign ideology of Christianity formed in the image of the commandments of Christ the enduring ideals of goodness, spiritual purity, sincerity, faith in miracles and apocalyptic torments of apostates in the afterlife. Byzantium also had a significant influence on the formation of the ideology and worldview of the Slavic medieval elite. The powerful introduction into the everyday consciousness of the Slavs of an original culture based on the ideals of Orthodox Christianity directly influenced the formation of their mentality, and to such an extent that, if we take for comparison, they were ready to quickly submit to the Mongolian tribes loyal to the Orthodox faith than the Western European ones. powers, the culture of which was based on the values \u200b\u200bof the Catholic faith. In the future, this influenced the formation of a worldview different from the Western Slavic worldview, but already as a causal factor. During the formation of the Ukrainian nationality, the traditions of spiritual communication between peoples continued to deepen and enrich. They were kept and developed primarily by such centers of spiritual culture as Orthodox monasteries; by the beginning of the 18th century, there were about 50 monasteries in Russia, including 17 in Kiev alone.
Ukrainian way
If you ask the question of who we are - as a nation, as a people, as a state, you first need to formulate a problem. In short, it can be defined as follows: THE UKRAINIAN WAY.
If you look back at the process of formation of the modern Ukrainian nation, remember when and how it happened, and above all - who are the spiritual motivators and initiators of this work, then we inevitably return to the 30-40s of the XIX century. Moreover, it was a period of not only Ukrainian, but also a pan-European national revival. As the apogee in 1848-49, a number of national and democratic revolutions took place. That is why this era in the history of Europe is usually called the "spring of nations". And Ukraine is no exception. Being then part of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, she wakes up, and simultaneously in all lands - both in the west and in the east. In Kiev, the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was formed, which operated until 1847 and was defeated by the tsarist autocratic machine. It did not even have time to mature to the end as a political and organizational structure. But it gave Ukraine such outstanding figures as Taras Shevchenko, Nikolay Kostomarov, Panteleimon Kulish.
The brothers considered national liberation as a component of the all-Slavic movement, political - as the need to build a federation of equal peoples, outside of imperial influences, and social - primarily as the abolition of serfdom, the introduction of general education, etc.
At the same time, in the views and works of Shevchenko, these ideas acquired the features of a new socio-political ideal. Its essence was expressed by calls for complete national and social liberation, for the construction of its own state - "in its own hut, its own truth, і strength, and will."
In Western Ukraine, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the harbingers of the "spring of peoples" were the public, political, spiritual and cultural figures from the group of pupils of the Lviv Theological Seminary "Russian Trinity" (Markian Shashkevich, Ivan Vagilevich, Yakov Golovatsky), who in 1837 Years released the almanac "Rusalka Dnistrovaya".
In 1848, the first Ukrainian organization, the Main Russian Rada, was created in Lvov, and the first Ukrainian newspaper, Zorya Halytska, was also published.
The main feature and difference of the new national democratic movement was the expansion of national requirements from ethnocultural and linguistic to social and political, which provided for
republican system, constitution, abolition of serfdom, civil rights, freedom of conscience, own press, etc.
Narodniks and Narodniks
The successors of the Cyril-Methodians in the east were the populists and communities, and in the west - the populists. The greatest merits of immigrants from the eastern, central and southern lands were the establishment of a Ukrainian printing house in St. Petersburg, the publication of the Osnova magazine there, the creation of mass communities in Kiev (more than 300 people), Poltava, Odessa, etc., as well as the transfer centers of the national liberation struggle after the repressions of tsarism abroad.
The greatest figure of this period was Mikhail Dragomanov, who, in his book Historical Poland and Great Russian Democracy (published in 1882) and a number of other works, formulated a new platform for the Ukrainian liberation movement - taking democratic freedoms and the right of every nation to an independent political a life.
Galician intellectuals-narodivtsi called themselves that way, because they considered the main thing in their activities to be the connection with the people, defending their interests and rights. When the times of reaction came to the Dnieper region, they accepted Ukrainian public and political figures and writers.
New periodicals were opened in Galicia, the Prosvita society and the Shevchenko Scientific Society appeared, favorable conditions for the emergence of Ukrainian political parties.
So, just as a large river is obtained from many streams and tributaries, so the Ukrainian national liberation movement in the second half of the 19th century absorbed the ideas and experience of many Ukrainian communities, organizations and movements of the populist and democratic direction.
The main task of this movement by that time was the liberation of Ukraine from the oppression of empires and the creation of its own state. At the same time, many Ukrainian democrats, including their leaders Mikhail Dragomanov and Ivan Franko, did not escape the influence of the ideological and political "epidemic" of the second half of the 19th century - socialism.
The first Ukrainian parties
At the turn of the 1990s, political parties took over the struggle for popular and democratic ideals. The idea of \u200b\u200bpolitical independence of Ukraine was first put forward by the Russian-Ukrainian Radical Party, created in 1890 in Galicia. It was headed by Ivan Franko, Mikhail Pavlik, Ostap Terletsky.
Having overcome the tangible socialist influence of Mikhail Dragomanov, this party, instead of the main goal - "collective organization of work and collective property", in 1895 announced the idea of \u200b\u200bstate independence of Ukraine. In 1899, two more “spun off” from this party - the National Democratic and the Social Democratic.
Two years earlier, a congress of communities took place in Kiev, which united into an all-Ukrainian non-party organization. In 1900, a group of Kharkov students led by Dmitry Antonovich announced the creation of the Ukrainian Revolutionary Party (RUP). Two years later, a group headed by Nikolai Mikhnovsky separated from it, which created the Ukrainian People's Party, and in 1905 the RUE itself was renamed the Ukrainian Social Democratic Party.
Thus, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with the emergence of a number of political parties, the Ukrainian national movement was divided into three streams - the people's democratic, national-democratic and social-democratic.
Despite some differences in social programs and the search for support in different strata of the population, they all remain faithful to the national idea, which the governing body of the Ukrainian National Democratic Party - the People's Committee - announced on the day of Christmas in 1900 in its address as follows: “Our ideal should to be independent Russia-Ukraine, in which all parts of our nation would be united into one new cultural state.
(By "cultural state" was meant a state with a high level of culture in general and a culture of democracy in particular).
So all the national parties were preparing the ideological and political basis for an independent Ukrainian state. At the same time, their split over time led to a tragic political and military confrontation during the years of revolutionary liberation competitions and civil war.
Lessons from the Liberation Competitions and the Soviet Experiment Both of the rise of the Ukrainian national liberation movement - in the 1920s and 1940s - failed, and their greatest achievement, the Ukrainian People's Republic, did not last long.
– the national liberation movement of Ukraine was not the only one, it failed to gather under its flag the majority of the Ukrainian people, did not unite their forces in the struggle for an independent state that would protect the interests of the people;
– the left wing of the national liberation movement (social democrats, socialist revolutionaries, Ukrainian socialists and communists) often put their social class and party international tasks above the interests of the Ukrainian people;
– the struggle for the realization of the primordial dreams of the Ukrainian people - about their own state and its democratic structure - was greatly complicated by two world military conflicts. And since Ukraine was a battlefield and was divided by military fronts, the national liberation forces practically did not have the opportunity to get at least
minimal assistance from European (mostly Western) democracies;
Non-state educational institution
SAMARA HUMANITARIAN ACADEMY
Philosophical and Philological Faculty
Department of Philosophy
Specialty 020100 Philosophy
HUMAN CONCEPTS IN ANTIQUE PHILOSOPHY
Course work
Completed a 1st year student of 2103 group
M.S. Bulanova
The work is protected by "" 200
Grade _______________________
Head chair
Ph.D., professor ________ N.Yu. Voronin
supervisor
E. Yu. Mikhaleva
Samara 2006
Bulanova Marina Sergeevna
"Concepts of Man in Ancient Philosophy"
Scientific adviser: Mikhaleva Elena Yurievna
Purpose: to reveal the basic concepts of human existence in ancient philosophy.
Object: human
Subject: works of ancient thinkers
The number of sources used - 13.
INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………… 4
1. Man as an object of philosophical analysis ………………………………… ..6
2. General ideas about human existence among ancient philosophers ... ... .9
3. Self-knowledge as the main problem of the philosophy of Socrates ……………… .13
4. Basic concepts of the ideal according to Plato ……………………………… 16
5. The idea of \u200b\u200bpersonal and public benefit of Aristotle ………………………… .19
CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………… ... 21
List of sources used …………………………………………… 22
Introduction
One of the most interesting philosophies is the philosophy of antiquity. She had a huge impact on the further development of philosophy. Basically, ancient philosophy owes to Greek philosophy. Since it was the Greeks who laid the initial foundation for the development of ancient thought.
The summit of ancient Greek philosophical thought is considered to be the philosophical achievements of Plato and Aristotle. The powerful intellectual figures of the founder of the Academy and the founder of the Lyceum, together with their immediate predecessor Socrates, are at the center of the philosophy of antiquity. The influence on the subsequent philosophical and cultural development of the ideas put forward by Plato and Aristotle is many times greater than the influence created by their predecessors. Without Platonic and Aristotelian approaches and concepts, it is impossible to understand any philosophical system along the entire long path of subsequent evolution, including modernity. That is why the assimilation of the ideas of these two thinkers should be at the center of attention when studying the philosophy of antiquity.
The history of ancient Greek philosophy opens with the name of Thales of Miletus. Thales argued that everything in the world comes from water. However, the statement of B. Russell in his characteristic semi-ironic manner is not without grounds: “In any course on the history of philosophy for students, the first thing is said that philosophy began with Thales, who said that everything comes from water. This discourages the novice who is trying - perhaps not very hard - to feel the respect for philosophy that the curriculum is supposed to be designed to. However, Russell finds a way out in highly appreciating Thales as a "man of science", if the view of the great Ionian as a philosopher is not impressive.
However, Russell's statements contain the truth that the correct understanding of the ideas of the first philosophers, primarily their concern with the search for the beginning (which together or alternately are water, air, fire, earth), is possible only in the context of general ideas about the culture of antiquity and its meaning. What is the mystery of the attractiveness of antiquity, why, over the course of many centuries, returns to the ancient heritage occur again and again and new generations comprehend and rethink its achievements? Apparently, they contain a certain secret, important for further development, a secret that is constantly being revealed, but always remains a problem.
The main goal of my work was to identify the main features of the philosophy of man in antiquity.
The problem of a person is relevant at any time, since a person is one of the most interesting objects for philosophical research. But it was in antiquity that the first ideas about human existence, about human goals and the meaning of its existence began to appear.
Most vividly and in detail this problem considered by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. It was these representatives of antiquity that I studied with great attention.
1. Man as an object of philosophical analysis.
The first ideas about man arise long before philosophy itself. At the initial stages of history, people are characterized by mythological and religious forms of self-awareness. In legends, legends, myths, the understanding of the nature, purpose and meaning of man and his being is revealed. The crystallization of the philosophical understanding of man occurs precisely on the basis of the concepts, ideas, images and concepts embedded in them and in the dialogue between the emerging philosophy and mythology. This is how the first teachings about man arise.
The ancient Indian philosophy of man is presented, first of all, in the monument of ancient Indian literature - the Vedas, in which the mythological, religious and philosophical worldview is simultaneously expressed. Increased interest in man and in the texts adjoining the Vedas - the Upanshiads. They reveal the problems of human morality, as well as ways and means of freeing him from the world of objects and passions. A person is considered the more perfect and moral, the more he achieves success in the matter of such liberation. The latter, in turn, is accomplished through the dissolution of the individual soul in the world soul, in the universal principle of the world.
Man in the philosophy of Ancient India is thought of as a part of the world soul. In the doctrine of the transmigration of souls (samsara), the border between living beings (plants, animals, humans) and the gods turns out to be passable and mobile. But it is important to note that only man is inherent in the desire for freedom, for the deliverance of passions and the fetters of empirical being with its law of samsara-karma. This is the pathos of the Upanshiads.
The Upanshiads had a tremendous impact on the development of the entire philosophy of man in India. In particular, their influence is great on the teachings of Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and yoga. This influence also affected the views of the famous Indian philosopher M.K.Gandhi.
The philosophy of ancient China also created a distinctive doctrine of man. One of its most significant representatives, Confucius, developed the concept of "heaven", which means not only a part of nature, but also the highest spiritual force that determines the development of the world and man. But at the center of his philosophy is not the sky, not the natural world in general, but man, his earthly life and existence, that is, it has an anthropocentric character.
Concerned about the decay of contemporary society, Confucius draws attention, first of all, to the moral behavior of man. He wrote that endowed with the sky with certain ethical qualities, a person is obliged to act in accordance with the moral law - Tao and improve these qualities in the learning process. The aim of the training is to achieve the level of an “ideal person”, “noble man” (tszyun-tzu), the concept of which was first developed by Confucius. In order to approach chun-tzu, everyone must follow a number of ethical principles. The central place among them belongs to the concept of ren (humanity, humanity, love for people), which expresses the law of ideal relations between people in the family and the state in accordance with the rule "do not do to people what you do not wish for yourself." This rule as a moral imperative in different versions will be found later in the teachings of the "seven wise men" in Ancient Greece, in the Bible, in Kant, in Vl. Solovyov and others. Confucius pays special attention to the principle of xiao (filial piety and respect for parents and elders), which is the basis of other virtues and the most effective method of governing a country considered as a "big family". He also paid considerable attention to such principles of behavior as li (etiquette) and justice.
Along with the teachings of Confucius and his followers, another direction in ancient Chinese philosophy should be noted - Taoism. Its founder is Lao Tzu. The initial idea of \u200b\u200bTaoism is the doctrine of Tao (path, road) - it is an invisible, omnipresent, natural and spontaneous law of nature, society, behavior and thinking of an individual. A person must follow the principle of Tao in his life, that is, his behavior must be consistent with the nature of man and the universe. If the principle of Tao is observed, inaction, non-action is possible, which nevertheless leads to complete freedom, happiness and prosperity.
Characterizing the ancient Eastern philosophy of man, we note that its most important feature is the orientation of the individual towards an extremely respectful and humane attitude, both to the social and natural world. At the same time, this philosophical tradition is focused on improving the inner world of a person. Improving public life, order, morals, governance, etc. associated, first of all, with a change in the individual and his adaptation to society, and not with a change in the external world and circumstances. Man himself determines the ways of his improvement and is his god and savior. At the same time, one must not forget that a characteristic feature of philosophical anthropologism is man, his world and fate are bound to be associated with the transcendental (transcendental) world.
2.General ideas about human existence among ancient philosophers.
Traditionally, it is believed that the first creator of the doctrine of man, we are talking about ancient Greek philosophy, which in no way diminishes the contribution of ancient Indian and ancient Chinese sages to this problem, is Socrates. Although his predecessors and contemporaries, for example, the sophists, paid considerable attention to this problem, Socrates was the first of the ancient sages who, according to Cicero, lowered philosophy from the heavens of cosmic issues to the earth, into cities and people's homes, forcing citizens to think, think first. turn about your life, reigning morals, good and evil. Socrates focuses on the inner life of a person, focusing on a person who knows. The highest level of activity that a sage should be engaged in is, according to Socrates, the study of man, that is, knowledge of what a person can have about his inner "I". If his predecessors, in particular natural philosophers, says Socrates, tried to find a solution to the problem: what is nature and the last reality of things, then he is worried about the question: what is the essence of man, what is nature and the last reality of man. And although he narrows the concept of man to the level of morality, the doctrine of the soul, believing that "a person is a soul" and "a soul is a person", it can be reasonably argued that Socratic ideas had a powerful influence on the further study of essence human.
At a higher level, human nature is considered in the works of such ancient thinkers as Plato (427 - 347 BC) and Aristotle (384 - 322 BC). The ideas expressed by them about the essence of man formed, taking into account, of course, time, the basis for subsequent ideas about man.
Plato's teaching about man is based on two postulates. The first is based on his general philosophical concept, according to which a person should not create, but only embody ideas already existing in the world. A person is free only in the choice of already existing ideas. According to Plato, “a person must comprehend general concepts that are formed from many sensory perceptions, but are brought together by reason. And this is a recollection of what our soul once saw, when it accompanied God, looked down on what we now call being, and, rising up, looked into true being. Only a person who uses such memories correctly will always become truly perfect. " The stages of human existence are based on his experience and, using his knowledge correctly, a person can achieve the truth of his thoughts and actions, thereby directing his soul to the sought-for perfection. Each person should strive for spiritual perfection, he should try to be better. And if a person has the willpower and the ability to control his thoughts, he will achieve his goal.
Secondly, according to Plato, the essence of man is only the soul, and his body appears only as a lower and hostile matter to the soul. In reality, a person is, as it were, divided into two unequal parts, from which the idea is the highest, and the body is the lowest. Thus, the Platonic soul determines the basic movement of a person in his development and existence.
In contrast to Plato, Aristotle sees man as the unity of his soul and body, closely interconnected with each other. And although the body should be subordinate to the soul, as the most elevated part, nevertheless, they cannot exist in isolation. After all, the human body and soul exist for the realization of our needs, thoughts, desires and emotions, thereby determining the meaning of our being.
Aristotle expresses a number of fruitful ideas that were in demand, were realized only several centuries later. Thus, he considers a person, although not always consistently, as a product of natural development. The fundamental difference between man and animals is that he "by nature is a political being," since nature instilled in all people the desire for state communication, due to which, in fact, the state arose.
The second distinctive feature of a person is that he is gifted with speech, language, thanks to which he is capable of sensory perception and expression of concepts such as good and evil, justice and injustice. He believed that thinking and reason are what is specifically human in man. After all, the mind is the highest ability of our knowledge. With its help, we comprehend the invisible, the divine, which allows us to identify certain values \u200b\u200bthat help to distinguish the desired signs of human existence. But Aristotle's theory does not do without identifying the main functions similar to animals. These are irritability (sensation) and the ability to move freely in space due to body movements. Finally, humans have common functions with plants - nutrition and reproduction. So, the human soul comes into contact with the foundations of the plant and animal world, thereby determining its highest stage of development.
Concerning the origin of man and the state and their relationship, Aristotle believes that in all cases the state should be ahead of the individual, since the whole must always precede its part. If we characterize the views of Aristotle on man as a whole, then we can say that for the first time he notes the importance of social factors in determining the essence of man.
In accordance with modern scientific achievements, there are good reasons to assert that man is a product of evolutionary development, in which, along with biological factors, social factors play an important role. In this regard, the question of the main differences between humans and highly organized animals and scientific explanations of the facts and processes that made these differences possible is of decisive importance.
Also, one of the main goals of ancient thinkers was to find the truth of their existence. For example, Socrates believed that the truth is already rooted in each of us. It is at the level of intuitive knowledge. And the task of each person as a rational being is to seek this truth. Plato, on the other hand, proceeded from the fact that a thinking person, in the process of comprehending the truth, seems to be holding a conversation with himself, resolving the contradictions that arise. He showed that without an internal dialogue with himself, a person cannot come closer to the truth. And only by resolving the contradictions that objectively arise in our thinking, we comprehend the truth in full.
3. Self-knowledge as the main problem of the philosophy of Socrates.
And now I would like to take a closer look at each of the representatives of antiquity.
Socrates (470 - 399 BC) was an older contemporary of the young Plato. The latter considered him to be his teacher. However, the views of Socrates were significantly different from those developed later by Plato. In general, the figure of Socrates stands out in the history of Greek thought, standing out both among his predecessors and among philosophers of a later time. Socrates did not leave a written legacy, believing that only a living word can express and convey a thought without distortion. He represented the image of a worldly preacher, possessing a talent for influencing people, although his appearance did not arouse much confidence in those around him.
The main goal of his philosophy was self-knowledge, as a path to comprehending true good. The whole teaching of Socrates about man is imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inadmissibility of violence and the ineffectiveness of its use in order to educate the soul, because “whoever is forced by force, he hates, as if something was taken from him, and who is influenced by conviction, he loves, as if it was done to him favor. Therefore, it is unusual for educated people to act with violence: such actions are characteristic of people who have strength, but not reason. " The thesis of the inadmissibility of violence testifies not only to Socrates' clear understanding of the specifics of a person, but also to his understanding of the need to develop a special approach to a person. Socrates' questions about what beauty, justice, friendship, wisdom, bravery are, made people think not only about philosophical concepts, but also about life values. Socrates explained the purpose of a person in society, his duties, his relationship with laws, the need to honor the gods, education, abstain from gross passions - that is, a practical orientation in life for a person guided by conscience, justice and civic duty. Cognition of a person is conceived by him as an integral part of the process of human relationships, communication between people: cognition of a person is a moment of communication. In communication, there is a spiritual impact of people on each other, the nature of which must be taken into account in order not to disrupt the process of cognition that is taking place. Incorrectly structured communication leads to distortion of knowledge and to wrong conclusions. Conversely, the lack of recognition of the cognitive side complicates the communication process. Consequently, the interconnected processes of cognition and communication must be organized in a special way. It is difficult to expect that this will develop by itself: special efforts are needed to develop a method that would provide the necessary conditions for communication and, accordingly, human cognition.
First of all, edification should be avoided in communication, which is a veiled, but easily detectable form of arrogance, which, when meeting with another, gives the opposite effect compared to the desired one. Feeling arrogance, the interlocutor closes in himself, cognition and contact become difficult. Apparently, Socrates was well aware of the inadmissibility of obsessive edification for someone who wants to study people. It is possible that he heard about the wisdom of Thales, who remarked that "the easiest thing to do is to give advice to another"; the saying "know thyself" was for him one of those that he valued especially highly. It is noteworthy, however, that Socrates also viewed the knowledge of oneself as carried out in communication with others. In communication, a person not only has the opportunity to peer into himself through others, who act as a kind of mirror, but also deepen and correct his thoughts, and generally detect and formulate them. But this again requires special communication techniques. Here we come to the famous question-answer method, one of the constituent parts of Socratic dialectics.
The next element of the Socratic method is the thesis formulated in a peculiar way by the philosopher: "I know that I know nothing." However, the thesis was known to other thinkers, but only Socrates occupied such an important place. This thesis was part of the art of conducting a conversation because its exposure produced the effect of a beneficial shock to the listener, stimulating dialogue. At the same time, Socrates asserted with his help the principle of intellectual honesty before oneself, because "in fact it is shameful ignorance to think that you know what you do not know." Socrates noted that often the recognition of the fact of their ignorance requires considerable mental effort: people tend to think that they know a lot or enough. This is what prevents them from moving further along the path of knowledge. Newness is often found in what seems well known and familiar. Socrates himself is no different in all respects and does not want to be different from other people. His only difference is that he "knows for sure that he knows nothing." This is actually his wisdom.
4. Basic concepts of the ideal according to Plato.
The tasks of the philosopher followed from the Platonic concept of the ideal: a true philosopher, in his opinion, should not deal with the real sensory world, his task is more sublime - to withdraw into himself and learn the world of ideas. From everyday vanity, from specific questions, for example, about injustice, one must move, he believed, “to the contemplation of what is justice or injustice in itself and how they differ from everything else and from each other, and from questions about how happy whether the king with his gold - to consider what is generally royal and human happiness or misfortune and how human nature should seek one or avoid the other. " The philosopher is looking for what man is and what befits his nature to create or experience, unlike others. Philosophy, according to Plato's concept, “is a craving for wisdom, or detachment and aversion from the body of the soul, which turned to the intelligible and truly being; wisdom consists in the knowledge of divine and human deeds. " Each person is a philosopher of his soul. He feels other people, reflects on the questions that concern him, thinks about life. A person can always solve problems through reflection and consequence. Thus, a person makes his existence more understandable for his thinking. He understands his purpose and tries to realize his goals in life.
This understanding of the tasks of philosophy is easiest to declare "a departure from reality", "scholasticism" (as we are used to talking about philosophers) and, perhaps, even "apologetics" of the Greek slave-owning polis, the ideology of aristocratic slavery. But let us ponder on Plato's understanding of the ideal. Is this an apologetics for the current being? Is not its ideal in its very essence critical in relation to everything that exists in the world (except for the most ideal)? No. All of the above does not give rise to these reproaches. AF Losev, the deepest connoisseur of ancient philosophy, notes that “Plato is characterized by the eternal and tireless search for truth, eternal and restless activity in the creation of socio-historical structures and constant immersion in this whirlpool of the then social and political life ... In contrast to pure speculation, Plato always strove to rework reality, and by no means only to its sluggish, passive, speculative contemplation. True, all such abstract ideals as Platonic ones cannot be considered easily realizable. But one of the main behests left to us by Plato says that although we must give speculation a worthy place for it, but the most important thing is the reworking of reality ... Even his speculation tried, one way or another, to move into life's work ... " ...
In the philosophical doctrine of Plato, ontology, theory of knowledge, ethics, aesthetics, and socio-political problems are closely related. We have already seen this connection from the previous exposition of his views. Let's touch on one more side of the Platonic concept.
A person, from his point of view, is directly related to all spheres of life: his physical body is from matter, while his soul is capable of absorbing ideas (thanks to “remembering ideas” that are innate but forgotten) and aspire to the Mind-Demiurge. The soul was created by God only once, it is immortal, eternal, capable of transmigrating from body to body (hence - the memory under the influence of objects and situations of what she once contemplated in the world of ideas and what was in the previous soul). The soul has the following structure: mind, will (passion) and lust (first of all, noble desires, attraction to good, but there are also negative desires). Different people have different strata of the soul, as a result of which different types of people are considered: lustful, striving for material, sensual pleasures; courageous, in which will, strength, courage prevail; and the type of the rational soul, aiming at the highest values, the welfare of people and justice. In society, these types of souls correspond to the estates: producers (artisans, peasants, merchants); guarding the law and the state (guards and warriors); governing the state. One of the foundations of the state is the division of labor, and in an ideal state - consistency, harmony of interests of all classes. Plato said that "the basis of all wisdom is patience." And if each person is tolerant of others, then it will be possible to achieve ideality in everything, and therefore in the state and in the person himself. Thus, we will be able to understand the inconsistency of our thoughts, directing them for the good of the state.
5. Aristotle's idea of \u200b\u200bpersonal and public good.
Aristotle transfers his observations of individual things to the world as a whole. He believes that there is a "cause of causes", a "form of forms." This is the Cosmic Mind, or Nus, God. He does not create nature and does not delve into particulars. This God does not exist outside our world, as, for example, the world of ideas in Plato. God is in the world itself as a plan, a project of the Cosmos, as a Prime Mover, although he himself is not mobile. It is not material, it is the spiritual Absolute. This is pure energy, pure activity. God moves as "an object of love." Thinking of himself, he thereby thinks the most divine and most valuable. To love God means to love others, to love the cosmos, to love oneself, to achieve entelechy (moral perfection) in one's activity. In Aristotle, "the name of the deity is attached to the first mover as a predicate: not God is a perpetual motion machine, but a perpetual motion machine deserves the name of God."
By the word man, we mean a being who knows how to think, who knows how to live in the environment and in understanding. All people are one. And we must be aware of this. After all, if we are together, it will be easier for us to live. To achieve his goals, the individual must associate with other people. Man, said Aristotle, is a political animal. A person strives for "cohabitation". To achieve good people create a state; it does not arise for the sake of living in general, but "mainly in order to live happily." The conditions for everyone's happiness are justice, prudence, courage and discretion. The state must also be fair. If a citizen is obliged to obey the authorities and laws, then the politician (ruler) must be morally perfect.
After Aristotle, his philosophical ideas during the next period of ancient philosophy continued to be developed by numerous of his students.
Conclusion
The thinkers of antiquity viewed man in an undifferentiated manner, as a part of the cosmos, acting as a kind of unified timeless “order”, “order” of nature and including all the basic principles of the world - fire, water, air, earth.
Man was created by nature, which means that he depends on it. But a person rises above her, since the essence of a person is in his mind. Man is convinced that nature exists for him, and he is destined to conquer it.
In ancient philosophy, the concept of not suffering, but an acting person was developed, whose sociality stems from his nature. He is the center of culture, its creator; his vocation is to know and do good.
Considerable attention in the philosophy of this time was paid to the problems of morality. It has been proven that the source of morality is nature, reason, knowledge. The ideal of a moral person was considered a sage - a moderate, prudent, fearless, harmonious person.
List of sources used.
1. Aristotle. Op. : In 4 volumes.Vol. 1.M., 1976.
2. Bogomolov AS Antique philosophy. M., 1985.
3. Losev A. F. "Plato's objective idealism and its tragic fate" // "Plato and his era"; M., 1979. Plato. Vol .: In 3 volumes.Vol. 2.
4. Plato. Dialogues. M., 1986.
5. Plato. Collected works Vol. 1.
6. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy M., 1993. V.1.
7. Sobolevsky S.I. Notes to "Memoirs of Socrates" // Xenophon. Memories of Socrates. - M. 1980.
8. Chanyshev A.N. A course of lectures on ancient philosophy. M., 1981.
9. Anthology of World Philosophy: Antiquity. - Mn .: Harvest, M .: OOO "AST Publishing House", 2001.
10. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: INFRA - M, 1998.
11. Philosophy of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages // Idealism of Plato. - M., Yekaterinburg, 2002. (Textbook for universities)
12. Dushenko K. Big book of aphorisms. - M .: EKSMO-press, 2001.
13. Mussky I.A. One hundred great thinkers. - M .: VECHE, 2004.
Russell B. History of Western Philosophy M., 1993. V.1.
Plato. Coll. cit., M., 1990, T. 1, S. 259
Plato. Coll. cit., M., 1993.vol. 2, p. 158
Plato. Coll. cit., M., 1993.vol. 2, p. 158
Sobolevsky S.I. Notes to "Memoirs of Socrates" // Xenophon. Memories of Socrates. - M. 1980.
Plato. Coll. op. T. 1, p. 83.
Plato. Vol .: In 3 vols. T. 2.S. 269
Plato. Dialogues. M., 1986.S. 437
Losev A. F. "Platonic objective idealism and its tragic fate" // "Plato and his era"; M., 1979. Plato. Vol .: In 3 volumes.Vol. 2.
Dushenko K
Big book of aphorisms. - M .: EKSMO-press, 2001
Bogomolov A.S. Antique Philosophy. Moscow, 1985, p. 217
1. Ancient culture. A man of the era of antiquity.
Antiquity
The ancient culture of the Mediterranean is considered one of the most important creations of mankind. Limited by space (mainly the coast and islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas) and time (from the II millennium BC to the first centuries of Christianity), ancient culture expanded the framework of historical existence, rightfully declaring itself the universal significance of architecture and sculpture, epic poetry and drama, natural science and philosophical knowledge.
Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations occupied territories located geographically close to each other, existed almost at the same time, so there is nothing surprising that they are closely related. Both civilizations had different cultures that evolved through interaction with each other.
Antiquity showed the world various forms of organization of the human community - political and social. Democracy was born in Ancient Greece, opening up enormous humanistic possibilities for free expression of the will of full citizens, the combination of freedom and organized political action. Rome gave examples of a well-oiled republican system of life and government, and then an empire - not only as a state, but as a special form of coexistence of many peoples with a special role of central power, as a state “pacification” of many tribes, languages, religions and lands. Rome opened to the world the essential role of law and regulation of all types of human relations and showed that without perfect law there can be no normally existing society, that the law must guarantee the rights of a citizen and a person, and the state's business is to enforce the law.
Antiquity bequeathed to subsequent eras the maxim "man is the measure of all things" and showed what heights a free man can reach in art, knowledge, politics, state building, and finally, in the most important thing - in self-knowledge and self-improvement. Beautiful Greek statues became the standard of the beauty of the human body, Greek philosophy - the model of the beauty of human thinking, and the best deeds of Roman heroes - examples of the beauty of civil service and state creation.
In the ancient world, a grandiose attempt was made to unite the West and East with a single civilization, to overcome the disunity of peoples and traditions in a great cultural synthesis, which revealed how fruitful the interaction and interpenetration of cultures is. One of the results of this synthesis was the emergence of Christianity, which was born as the religion of a small community on the outskirts of the Roman world and gradually turned into a world religion.
Art
Unprecedented earlier in history, the perception of a person as a free citizen ("political being") was reflected in artistic culture, art, and led to their extraordinary rise and flowering. The achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans are so grandiose that the entire history of world art is unthinkable without ancient plots, Greek and Roman mythology, antique canons and samples.
Ancient art (5th-4th centuries BC) is justly called classics, since it was a role model in the embodiment of perfect beauty, where the virtue of the soul, the power of the mind, is completely merged with the beauty of the body. This could be most fully conveyed in sculpture. Plutarch drew attention to the importance of sculpture in the life of the Greeks, who noted that there were more statues in Athens than living people.
Greek plasticity reached its perfection in the work of the great Phidias, who created many beautiful creations, among which the famous statue of Olympian Zeus, made of ivory and gold, stood out. The majestic 14-meter statue of a formidable god sitting on a throne was the embodiment of wisdom and humanity. She was ranked among the seven "wonders of the world" and is known only from descriptions and images on ancient coins.
Other sculptors who glorified ancient art include: Praxiteles, who was the first in history to depict Aphrodite as a naked beautiful woman (Aphrodite of Cnidus); Lysippos, who left to the descendants a beautiful portrait of Alexander the Great (also preserved in a Roman copy); Leochares, author of the legendary Apollo of Belvedere.
Architecture
Along with sculpture, ancient architecture reached the highest flowering, many monuments of which, fortunately, have survived to this day. The Great Parthenon, the ruins of the Colosseum impress with their beauty and grandeur even today.
The predominant principle of expediency, clarity and boldness of engineering thinking made it possible to satisfy both the everyday needs of the large population and the sophisticated aesthetic taste of aristocrats (their villas with parks and palaces were fabulous). Etruscan traditions in architecture and the invention of concrete allowed the Romans to move from simple beamed ceilings to arches, vaults and domes.
The Romans went down in history as outstanding builders. They erected monumental structures, even the ruins of which are still amazing. These include amphitheaters, circuses, stadiums, baths (public baths), palaces of emperors and nobles. In Rome, they built apartment buildings - insulas - of 3-6, and sometimes even 8 floors.
Roman temples with a rectangular shape and porticoes resembled the Greek ones, but unlike the latter, they were erected on high platforms with stairs (podiums). In Roman temple architecture, the type of rotunda was used, that is, a round temple. This was one of the oldest temples - the temple of Vesta. The most significant achievement of Roman building technology was the temple of all the gods - the Pantheon in Rome. The dome of the Pantheon with a diameter of 43 m was considered the largest in the world.
Undoubtedly, the most grandiose Roman building is the building of the amphitheater - the Colosseum, which was an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m. The Colosseum wall had a height of 50 m and consisted of three tiers.
Back in the II century. BC e. Roman builders invented concrete, which contributed to the spread of arched-vaulted structures that have become a characteristic element of Roman architecture, such as the triumphal arches - monuments to military and imperial glory. A series of arches - arcades were used in the construction of multi-tiered stone bridges, inside of which there were pipes supplying water to the city. The foundation of the Colosseum (1st century), 5 m deep, was built of concrete. Fortresses, bridges, aqueducts, port jetties, roads were built from concrete.
Theatre
Among the various entertainments so beloved in antiquity, the theater occupied a particularly important place in the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans - it performed various functions, including moral - ethical, educational, humanistic. In Athens V century. BC BC, which became the center of literary, poetic creativity, tragedy and comedy flourished . Tragedy - a direct translation of "song of the goats" - arises from a choral song sung by satyrs dressed in goatskins and depicting the constant companions of the god of wine Dionysus. It became the official form of creativity when the national holiday of the Great Dionysius was approved in Athens.
The most popular were the tragedies of the three greatest Athenian playwrights: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Each of them in his own way solved the problems of good and evil, fate and retribution, joy and compassion. Aristotle in Poetics, defining tragedy, says that it "through compassion and fear purifies such passions", causes catharsis (purification).
The flourishing of another genre - comedy is associated with the name of Aristotle. The plots for the comedies were taken from the then political life of Athens, in contrast to the tragedies, the plots of which were based on the mythological past. The artistic images created by famous playwrights are distinguished by the depth of psychological characteristics and have excited many generations of viewers over the centuries. Prometheus, Oedipus, Medea, Phaedra personify the legendary past of ancient times.
Literature
The development of antique literature, which grew out of folklore, from heroic legends about the past, is closely connected with the ancient theater. The written period of ancient Greek literature begins with the poems of Homer and continues in the didactic epic of Hesiod ("Theogony", "Works and Days"). One of the best Roman lyricists was Catullus, who dedicated many love poems to the famous beauty Claudia. However, the "golden age" for Roman poetry was during the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). Three of the most famous Roman poets lived and worked in the "Age of Augustus": Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Virgil's unfinished Aeneid glorified the greatness of Rome, the Roman spirit. Horace highly appreciated the poet's appointment, which found expression in his famous "Monument", which was imitated by many poets, including Alexander Pushkin. The undoubted pinnacle of Roman love lyrics is the work of Ovid, which was embodied in such famous works as the poems "Metamorphoses", "Science of Love", etc.
The educator of Nero, the famous philosopher Seneca, made a significant contribution to the development of the tragic genre. It was this ancient tragedy that the playwrights of the New Age chose as a role model. Seneca's tragedies are written in the spirit of a “new style”: protracted, pathetic monologues, cumbersome metaphors and comparisons are intended more for the reader than for the viewer.
Olympic Games
The most vivid expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games , which Greece gave to the world. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776 BC. e. the name of the winner in the race was first written on a marble plaque, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove Altis. The place was chosen very well. All buildings, both early and later - temples, treasuries, a stadium, a hippodrome were erected in a flat valley, framed by soft hills covered with dense greenery. Nature in Olympia is, as it were, imbued with the spirit of peace and prosperity that was established during the Olympic Games. In the sacred grove, thousands of spectators set up their camp. But they came here not only for the sake of competitions, trade deals were concluded here, poets, orators and scientists spoke to the audience with their new speeches and works, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to those present. The state had the right to announce new laws, treaties and other important documents here. Once every four years, a holiday was held, equal to which antiquity did not know - a holiday of spiritual communication between the best minds and the most brilliant talents of Greece.
2. Formation of Ukrainian culture.
The influence of neighboring cultures on the culture of Ukraine
Since ancient times, the cultural space of Ukraine has felt the influence of neighboring pre-state and state integrations. Slavic lands were constantly attacked by nomadic tribes: Avars, Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsians. In the XII century, various tribes fell into dependence on Kievan Rus. Communicating with the Slavs, they were subject to mutual cultural influences, often assimilated with the local population.
In the IX-X centuries. the influence of Byzantium and the countries of the "Byzantine circle" was significant. Already ancient chronicles, chronicles and other sources testify to the dynastic and spiritual contacts of Kievan Rus and with the neighboring European states. The fusion of Byzantine and Western traditions with the Kiev cultural heritage became the basis for the formation of a kind of Ukrainian cultural identity.
In the 13th century, the threat to the Kiev state was represented by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors (from 1239), the German knights-crusaders, who in 1237 formed a powerful state by uniting the Livonian and Teutonic orders, Hungary, since 1205 temporarily subjugated the Ukrainian lands to its power, in particular, Transcarpathia; in the period from the 14th to the beginning of the 17th centuries, the colonization of the Lithuanian state began, which seized Volyn, from 1362 Kiev, Pereyaslav, Podolsk, Chernigov-Seversky lands, Poland, which extended its influence to Galicia and Western Volyn, Moldova, which turned its gaze to Northern Bukovina and the Danube , Crimean Khanate (zone of influence - Northern Black Sea region and Azov region), Turkish Empire.
In the 16th century, the process of mutual enrichment of Ukrainian culture, with its dominant Cyril and Methodian tradition, with the cultural achievements of the Catholic world in Central and Western Europe, continued. It was on the Ukrainian lands that the synthesis of two cultural traditions took place, the consequence of which was the formation of a new general type of culture for the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.
Since the second half of the 17th century, the main influence on the development of Ukrainian culture has been exerted by the Russian state. In 1653, Tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich convened the Zemsky Sobor, which decreed that in the name of the Orthodox faith and the holy Church of God, the Tsar must accept Ukrainians "under his high hand." ...
Great Russian and Ukrainian, the two largest varieties among the Slavic tribes. Historical fate has brought them together more than once, and in the first centuries of their historical life, the role of the architect, the leading element in cultural and political life, the most important element in Eastern Europe was played by the Ukrainian people, but their belonging to a single ethnic consortium is undoubted
Influence of pre-Christian and Christian culture in Kievan Rus
Historical science testifies that a high, distinctive culture had developed in Kievan Rus long before the adoption of Christianity. There is no doubt that a century before the general official baptism of Rus, in 988, there were Christians of Russian and Varangian origin in Kiev, there was a cathedral church in Podil, "above Ruchai", there were squad mounds in which the dead soldiers were buried without the obligatory pagan burning ... And there were literate people. The naive idea of \u200b\u200bthe complete savagery of the Slavs at the time of the baptism of Russia corresponds to the church thesis "Paganism is darkness, Christianity is light", but does not correspond to historical reality. For about a century and a half, Kievan Rus existed as a pagan state. The cities that emerged - the courts of princes of different ranks, from tribal "any princes" to "bright princes" of tribal unions (Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) to the Grand Duke of Kiev himself, have long since overcome primitiveness and have become significantly stronger. The Russian military nobility laid the main routes to the south - to Byzantium, and to the west - to the German lands along the Upper Danube, and to the fabulous countries of the East. Long-distance trade expeditions enriched the Russians not only with silk, brocade, weapons, but also with knowledge, broadened their horizons, introduced, as far as possible, to world culture. The Rus were already known throughout the Old World, from France, in the West, to Afghanistan, in the East.
Byzantium brought Christianity and highly developed literature and art to Kievan Rus. The eradication of paganism and the implantation of overseas Christianity will subsequently make it possible to create a powerful ideology, which gradually entered the everyday consciousness of people. Moreover, protected by the Slavic writing of Cyril and Methodius, the powerful sovereign ideology of Christianity formed in the image of the commandments of Christ the enduring ideals of goodness, spiritual purity, sincerity, faith in miracles and apocalyptic torments of apostates in the afterlife. Byzantium also had a significant influence on the formation of the ideology and worldview of the Slavic medieval elite. The powerful introduction into the everyday consciousness of the Slavs of an original culture based on the ideals of Orthodox Christianity directly influenced the formation of their mentality, and to such an extent that, if we take for comparison, they were ready to quickly submit to the Mongolian tribes loyal to the Orthodox faith than the Western European ones. powers, the culture of which was based on the values \u200b\u200bof the Catholic faith. In the future, this influenced the formation of a different from the Western Slavic worldview, but already as a causal factor. During the formation of the Ukrainian nationality, the traditions of spiritual communication between peoples continued to deepen and enrich. They were kept and developed primarily by such centers of spiritual culture as Orthodox monasteries; by the beginning of the 18th century, there were about 50 monasteries in Russia, including 17 in Kiev alone.
Ukrainian way
If you ask the question of who we are - as a nation, as a people, as a state, you first need to formulate a problem. In short, it can be defined as follows: THE UKRAINIAN WAY.
If you look back at the process of formation of the modern Ukrainian nation, remember when and how it happened, and above all - who are the spiritual motivators and initiators of this work, then we inevitably return to the 30-40s of the XIX century. Moreover, it was a period of not only Ukrainian, but also a pan-European national revival. As the apogee in 1848-49, a number of national and democratic revolutions took place. That is why this era in the history of Europe is usually called the "spring of nations". And Ukraine is no exception. Being then part of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, she wakes up, and simultaneously in all lands - both in the west and in the east. In Kiev, the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was formed, which operated until 1847 and was defeated by the tsarist autocratic machine. It did not even have time to mature to the end as a political and organizational structure. But it gave Ukraine such outstanding figures as Taras Shevchenko, Nikolay Kostomarov, Panteleimon Kulish.
The brothers considered national liberation as a component of the all-Slavic movement, political - as the need to build a federation of equal peoples, outside of imperial influences, and social - primarily as the abolition of serfdom, the introduction of general education, etc.
At the same time, in the views and works of Shevchenko, these ideas acquired the features of a new socio-political ideal. Its essence was expressed by calls for complete national and social liberation, for the construction of their own state - "in their own hut, their own truth, and strength, and will."
In Western Ukraine, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the harbingers of the "spring of peoples" were the public, political, spiritual and cultural figures from the group of pupils of the Lviv Theological Seminary "Russian Trinity" (Markian Shashkevich, Ivan Vagilevich, Yakov Golovatsky), who in 1837 Years released the almanac "Rusalka Dnistrovaya".
In 1848, the first Ukrainian organization, the Main Russian Rada, was created in Lvov, and the first Ukrainian newspaper, Zorya Halytska, was also published.
The main feature and difference of the new national democratic movement was the expansion of national requirements from ethnocultural and linguistic to social and political, which provided for
republican system, constitution, abolition of serfdom, civil rights, freedom of conscience, own press, etc.
Narodniks and Narodniks
The successors of the Cyril-Methodians in the east were the populists and communities, and in the west - the populists. The greatest merits of immigrants from the eastern, central and southern lands were the establishment of a Ukrainian printing house in St. Petersburg, the publication of the Osnova magazine there, the creation of mass communities in Kiev (more than 300 people), Poltava, Odessa, etc., as well as the transfer centers of the national liberation struggle after the repressions of tsarism abroad.
The greatest figure of this period was Mikhail Dragomanov, who, in his book Historical Poland and Great Russian Democracy (published in 1882) and a number of other works, formulated a new platform for the Ukrainian liberation movement - taking democratic freedoms and the right of every nation to an independent political a life.
Galician intellectuals-narodivtsi called themselves that way, because they considered the main thing in their activities to be the connection with the people, defending their interests and rights. When the times of reaction came to the Dnieper region, they accepted Ukrainian public and political figures and writers.
New periodicals were opened in Galicia, the Prosvita society and the Shevchenko Scientific Society appeared, favorable conditions for the emergence of Ukrainian political parties.
So, just as a large river is obtained from many streams and tributaries, so the Ukrainian national liberation movement of the second half of the 19th century absorbed the ideas and experience of many Ukrainian communities, organizations and movements of the populist and democratic direction.
The main task of this movement by that time was the liberation of Ukraine from the oppression of empires and the creation of its own state. At the same time, many Ukrainian democrats, including their leaders Mikhail Dragomanov and Ivan Franko, did not escape the influence of the ideological and political "epidemic" of the second half of the 19th century - socialism.
The first Ukrainian parties
At the turn of the 1990s, political parties took over the struggle for popular and democratic ideals. The idea of \u200b\u200bpolitical independence of Ukraine was first put forward by the Russian-Ukrainian Radical Party, created in 1890 in Galicia. It was headed by Ivan Franko, Mikhail Pavlik, Ostap Terletsky.
Having overcome the tangible socialist influence of Mikhail Dragomanov, this party, instead of the main goal - "collective organization of work and collective property", in 1895 announced the idea of \u200b\u200bstate independence of Ukraine. In 1899, two more “spun off” from this party - the National Democratic and the Social Democratic.
Two years earlier, a congress of communities took place in Kiev, which united into an all-Ukrainian non-party organization. In 1900, a group of Kharkov students led by Dmitry Antonovich announced the creation of the Ukrainian Revolutionary Party (RUP). Two years later, a group headed by Nikolai Mikhnovsky separated from it, which created the Ukrainian People's Party, and in 1905 the RUE itself was renamed the Ukrainian Social Democratic Party.
Thus, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with the emergence of a number of political parties, the Ukrainian national movement was divided into three streams - the people's democratic, national-democratic and social-democratic.
Despite some differences in social programs and the search for support in different strata of the population, they all remain faithful to the national idea, which the governing body of the Ukrainian National Democratic Party - the People's Committee - announced on the day of Christmas in 1900 in its address as follows: “Our ideal should to be independent Russia-Ukraine, in which all parts of our nation would be united into one new cultural state.
(By "cultural state" was meant a state with a high level of culture in general and a culture of democracy in particular).
So all the national parties were preparing the ideological and political basis for an independent Ukrainian state. At the same time, their split over time led to a tragic political and military confrontation during the years of revolutionary liberation competitions and civil war.
Lessons from the Liberation Competitions and the Soviet Experiment Both of the rise of the Ukrainian national liberation movement - in the 1920s and 1940s - failed, and their greatest achievement, the Ukrainian People's Republic, did not last long.
- the national liberation movement of Ukraine was not the only one, it failed to gather under its flag the majority of the Ukrainian people, did not unite its forces in the struggle for an independent state that would protect the interests of the people;
- the left wing of the national liberation movement (social democrats, socialist revolutionaries, Ukrainian socialists and communists) often put their class social and party international tasks above the interests of the Ukrainian people;
- the struggle for the realization of the primordial dreams of the Ukrainian people - about their own state and its democratic structure - was greatly complicated by two world military conflicts. And since Ukraine was a battlefield and was divided by military fronts, the national liberation forces practically did not have the opportunity to get at least
minimal assistance from European (mostly Western) democracies;
- Culture and civilization - page 2
- Culture and civilization - page 3
- Typology of cultures and civilizations - page 2
- Typology of cultures and civilizations - page 3
- General characteristics of primitiveness
- Periodization of primitive history
- Material culture and social relations
- Spiritual culture
- The emergence of mythology, art and scientific knowledge
- Formation of religious beliefs
- East as a sociocultural and civilizational phenomenon
- Pre-axial cultures of the Ancient East
- Early state in the East
- Art culture
- Culture of Ancient India
- Worldview and religious beliefs
- Art culture
- Culture of Ancient China
- The level of development of material civilization
- State and the genesis of social ties
- Worldview and religious beliefs
- Art culture
- General characteristics and main stages of development
- Antique polis as a unique phenomenon
- Art culture
- General characteristics of the European Middle Ages
- Material culture, economics and living conditions in the Middle Ages
- Social and political systems of the Middle Ages
- Medieval pictures of the world, value systems, human ideals
- Medieval pictures of the world, value systems, human ideals - page 2
- Medieval pictures of the world, value systems, human ideals - page 3
- Artistic culture and art of the Middle Ages
- Artistic culture and art of the middle ages - page 2
- General characteristics of the Arab-Muslim civilization
- Economic development
- Socio-political relations
- Features of Islam as a world religion
- Art culture
- Artistic culture - page 2
- Artistic culture - page 3
- Byzantine picture of the world
- General characteristics of the Byzantine civilization
- Social and political systems of Byzantium
- Byzantine picture of the world
- Byzantine picture of the world - page 2
- Artistic culture and art of Byzantium
- Artistic culture and art of Byzantium - page 2
- General characteristics of medieval Russia
- Economy. Social class structure
- Economy. Social class structure - page 2
- Evolution of the political system
- Evolution of the political system - page 2
- Evolution of the political system - page 3
- The value system of medieval Russia. Spiritual culture
- The value system of medieval Russia. Spiritual culture - page 2
- The value system of medieval Russia. Spiritual culture - page 3
- The value system of medieval Russia. Spiritual culture - page 4
- Artistic culture and arts
- Artistic culture and art - page 2
- Artistic culture and art - page 3
- Artistic culture and art - page 4
- Content of the concept and periodization of the era
- Economic, social and political preconditions for the European Renaissance
- Changes in the alignment of citizens
- Renaissance content
- Humanism - the ideology of the Renaissance
- Titanism and its "reverse" side
- Renaissance art
- General characteristics of modern times
- Way of life and material civilization of modern times
- Social and political systems of modern times
- Pictures of the world of modern times
- Artistic styles in modern art
- General information
- Description of the main stages
- Economy. Social composition. The evolution of the political system
- The social composition of Russian society
- The evolution of the political system
- The value system of Russian society
- The value system of Russian society - page 2
- The evolution of spiritual culture
- The ratio of provincial and metropolitan culture
- Don Cossacks culture
- Development of social and political thought and awakening of civic consciousness
- The emergence of protective, liberal and socialist traditions
- Two lines in the history of Russian culture in the 19th century.
- The role of literature in the spiritual life of Russian society
- Artistic culture of modern times
- Artistic culture of modern times - page 2
- Artistic culture of modern times - page 3
- General characteristics of the period
- Choosing the path of social development. Programs of political parties and movements
- Liberal alternative to transform Russia
- Social Democratic Alternative to Transform Russia
- Revaluation of the traditional value system in the public mind
- The Silver Age - the renaissance of Russian culture
- General characteristics of the period
- General characteristics of the period - page 2
- The evolution of the value system in Western culture of the XX century.
- The main trends in the development of Western art
- Problems of the history of Soviet society and culture
- Formation of the Soviet system (1917-1930s)
- Economy
- Social structure. Public consciousness
- Culture
- Soviet society in the years of war and peace. Crisis and collapse of the Soviet system (40-80s)
- Ideology. Political system
- Economic development of Soviet society
- Social relationships. Public consciousness. System of values
- Cultural life
- Political and socio-economic development of modern Russia
- Political and socio-economic development of modern Russia - page 2
- Public Consciousness in the 90s: Main Development Trends
- Public consciousness in the 90s: main development trends - page 2
- Development of culture
Perception of a person in ancient society
The Greek religion has undergone significant changes over a long period of its existence, taking various forms, but it has never been rigid and dogmatic. With its splendor, splendor and brilliance, it resembled folklore, which in fact it was. Such were the Greek myths, reflecting the worldview of ancient people.
Greek mythology is a reflection of nature, the surrounding world in sensually concrete images and in the form of animate creatures that are thought to be quite real. The world-space was understood by the ancient Greeks as an animated spherical body inhabited by people and gods.
Initially, the Greeks, like other peoples, inhabited the surrounding nature with spirits and deities that had a half-animal appearance: sirens - half-women, half-birds; nereids - half fish; woolly satyrs with goat's legs, horns and a tail; centaurs - half horses, etc.
Like other agricultural peoples, the Greeks worshiped the female deities of earthly fertility - Gaia, Demeter, Cora. The latter two were called, respectively, the "mother of loaves" and "maiden of grain."
The patriarchal cult of ancestors played an important role. There were myths about the marriages of gods with earthly women, whose descendants became the founders of noble families. In their honor, sanctuaries and temples were built.
The early Roman religion was also imbued with a belief in spirits and household deities. Good spirits were called mans, evil spirits were called lemurs. The hearth was looked after by Lara and Penates, and the door of the dwelling was guarded by a two-faced Janus, facing both the past and the future.
During the heyday of the Greek polis, a common Greek Olympic religion appeared, named after Mount Olympus, where, according to myth, the main gods lived on the snowy peak: Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Aphrodite, etc. During the period of the Roman Republic, the Greek Olympian gods were identified with the Roman gods and named by their names: Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Athena - Minerva, Aphrodite - Venus, Hermes - Mercury, etc. Of all the gods, the Romans singled out three main ones - Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
The Olympic gods, in contrast to the despotic, mysterious ("chthonic") oriental gods, were considered as creatures, although powerful, but close and understandable to man. They have everything that is characteristic of people: the ability to eat and drink, love and hate, as well as have physical disabilities (the god of blacksmithing, Hephaestus is lame). Such anthropomorphism - the humanization of the gods - is inherent in the whole of the ancient worldview, ancient culture.
However, not all gods were humanized. A deity that defies any humanization is destiny (Moira). As noted by A. Bonnard, a Swiss Hellenistic scientist, "Moira represents the beginning, placed above the freedom of people and gods and making out of the world something that really embodies order, something ordered." This idea is due to the fact that in the relationship between people and ancient gods, the leading role belongs to man. Although the gods follow the destinies of fate, man, making his choice, is himself responsible for his actions.
The polis system brought up a special perception of the world among the Greeks. He taught them to appreciate the real possibilities and abilities of each person. It was they who were elevated to the highest principle: a free, harmoniously developed, beautiful in spirit and body citizen - this is the ideal of antiquity. In achieving the ideal, an important role was played by the combination of a sense of collectivism and an agonistic (adversarial) principle in ancient Greek morality.
Agon, i.e. competitive beginning, affirms in Greek society the idea of \u200b\u200bvictory in a competition as the highest value, glorifying the winner and bringing him honor and respect. Initially, the agons were mass athletic competitions, and later turned into massive general Greek games and festivities. These were the famous Olympic Games, held for the first time in 776 BC. in honor of Olympian Zeus and repeated every four years.
Various entertainments and shows are one of the characteristic features of ancient civilization. Initially, they were closely associated with religious rituals and festivals. This is how the ancient Greek theater originated. In Athens in the VI century. BC. there was an annual national holiday - the Great Dionysias, during which scenes from myths were played out.
The Greek tragedy ("Song of the Goats") arose from the praise (choral song), sung by satyrs dressed in goatskins and depicting the cheerful companions of the god of wine Dionysus. Subsequently, three actors were added to the choir - this is how the theatrical performance arose.
The spectacular culture reached its greatest scope in ancient Rome. Perhaps this was due to the fact that hedonistic tendencies in the way of life prevailed in Roman society. The plebs demanded "bread and circuses", and the authorities gave him what he demanded. For the Roman nobility, spectacles served as the embodiment of the idea of \u200b\u200bglory and honor gained in battle. Therefore, gladiator fights and circus games were so popular there.
The oldest and most populous games were at the Circus Maximus, which held up to 200 thousand spectators. Equestrian competitions and animal baiting were also held here. The interest in bloody spectacles was inherent in the Romans and persisted throughout Roman history.
Gladiator fights were originally part of the Etruscan funeral ritual, and then took on the character of a public spectacle, carefully prepared and well organized. They were distinguished by their scope and mass character. So, Julius Caesar brought 500 pairs of gladiators into the arena, and later the Roman emperors sent tens of thousands of gladiators into the arena.
In this peculiar way, they tried to gain popularity among the people and become famous. The striving for fame, public recognition was a kind of social mechanism for the formation of a new type of personality, as it encouraged a person to social innovation, the development of all his potentials, internal resources.
Agon as an adversarial beginning, as an impulse for a variety of successful activities, contributed to the formation of new moral and ethical values: a person compared himself and his fellow citizens, took responsibility for the entirety of his being, learned to become a person, mastered new types of social behavior (for example, leadership).
It was on this that Greek education was built, the purpose of which was not to train a professional in any field, but to educate a full-fledged citizen, an individual. The historical merit of the ancient Greeks, their contribution to the European world culture consists in the creation of an educational institution aimed at educating the human in man.
The same goals were served by Greek philosophy, which, together with science, it was in Ancient Greece that first separated from religion. If at an early stage of development - natural philosophy - the subject of interest for the Greeks was mainly nature, then later man and his deeds became it.
Determining the place of man in the unstable world around him, restoring the unity of man and space, moral substantiation of people's actions (instead of traditional communal morality) - this is the range of problems that philosophers of the 5th-6th centuries dealt with. BC. At first the sophists and Socrates, then Plato, Aristotle and other prominent philosophers of antiquity were the spokesmen for these ideas. Therefore, the 5th-4th centuries. BC. considered the era of classical ancient Greek philosophy.
Unlike the Greek philosophers of classical times, Roman thinkers were more focused on politics in the form of developing theories about what a modern monarch should be, and on ethics, designed to show how a person should live in conditions when there is an eternal, like space, the Roman Empire ...
A significant achievement of ancient Roman thought was the creation of an independent science - jurisprudence, including an extensive complex of political and legal problems in the field of the general theory of state and law. The highest development of Roman jurisprudence was reached during the period of activity of the outstanding Roman jurists - Salvius, Julian and Gaius. The Guy Institutions became the first textbook in which legal norms were clearly stated and systematized. Among the authors who wrote on moral topics, Plutarch of Chaeronea and the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius are better known than others.
Stoicism was very popular in Rome, the most prominent representative of which was Seneca. Seneca can be called the Roman predecessor of Christianity, since he largely anticipated the religious teaching of Christianity, in particular in defining the nature and role of the human spirit, the concept of its immortality. He owns the idea of \u200b\u200ba great ideal community of God, which was later called the universal church. Seneca's formula “win yourself for yourself” was a consequence of the loss of the former unity of the citizen and the civil community, the search for new values.
Under the conditions of the empire, when the polis became a cosmopolis, individualism began to develop instead of collectivism, and cosmopolitanism instead of patriotism. The existence of major powers made it easier to move from city to city, from one locality to another, and no patriotism kept people from moving to another place if it was beneficial.
The ideas of cosmopolitanism and human community existed throughout the Hellenistic period, and in the first centuries of our era coincided with the spread of Christianity in Rome. Christianity has strengthened the feeling that a person does not belong to a narrow polis world, that he is left alone with something universal and absolute. Christianity brought new values, it proclaimed the equality of all before God, which was of particular importance for people thirsting for justice in the face of aggravated contradictions.
As a new religion, Christianity first appeared in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (Judea, Asia Minor, Egypt), and later - in the western. At first, cruel persecutions were arranged against Roman Christians, since Christianity was a refuge for the poor and slaves, and with the penetration of Christianity into the environment of the highest nobility, it took an equal position with other religions. Later, Christianity was proclaimed the state religion of the Roman Empire, which played a decisive role in transforming it into a world religion.